19 - The Description of Plaksha and other Continents 

Suta said: 

1. I shall succinctly recount (information about) the continent of Plaksha¹ in the manner it really is. Listen to this, O excellent Brahmaņa even as I speak about it factually. 

1. This dvipa is next to Jambudvipa. Its name Plakṣha (a fig tree) indicates a land of warm, temperate climate. M. Ali, ‘without hesitations', identifies this with the baxin of the Mediterranean (Goog. of Puranas, p. 41). The name Plaksha still persists a Placia, a town in Myria. 

2. Its width is twice the width of Jambūdvipa. Its round girth (perimeter) is twice its width. 

3. The salty sea is encompassed by that continent. There the Janapadas (the countries or rural regions) are all sacred. People do not die for a long time. 

4. Whence is the fear of famine there? (i.e., there is no fear of famine there). Whence is the fear of old age and sickness? There too, there are seven holy mountains bedecked in jewels. 

5-6. They are the receptacle of precious gems. There are rivers also. I shall mention their names. In those five continents. viz: Plakşhadvipa and others, there are seven long and straight Varşhaparvatas (mountains belonging to the subcontinents) stationed in every quarter. I shall mention the seven extremely powerful (sub) continents in the Plakşhadvīpa. 

7. Here the first mountain is Gomedaka. It is like the clouds. It is on account of its name that the sub-continent is also named Gomeda. 

8. The second mountain is the Chandra, which is endowed with all types of medicinal herbs. It is from here that medicinal herbs were collected by the brothers (Ashvins) for the sake of Amruta (Nectar). 

9. The third mountain is high and unscalable. It is named Närada. It was on this mountain that Närada and Parvata were born formerly. 

10-11a. (Text partially defective) The fourth mountain there is named Dundubhi. It was on this mountain that the Asura Dundubhi, who had the boon of having death as he pleased, was formerly overpowered by the Devas. This demon had a great desire for swinging in a rope-swing on a Shälmali (silk cotton) tree and this brought about his death. 

11b-12a. The fifth mountain is named Somaka, where nectar was formerly collected by the Devas. It was also brought by Garutman (Garuda) for the sake of his mother. 

12b-13a. The sixth leading mountain is called by the name Sumanas. It was on this mountain that Hiranyäksha was killed by the divine Boar. 

13b-14. The seventh mountain there is Vaibharaja. It is luminous. It is very lofty. It is crystalline. Since it shines with its rays, it is remembered as Vaibhraja. 

I shall mention their sub-continents in due order and by their names. 

15. The first sub-continent is Gomeda. It is remembered by the name Shantabhaya (having all fears subdued). The subcontinent of (the mountain) Chandra is named Shishira. That of the Närada is Sukhodaya. 

16. Ananda is the sub-continent of the Dundubhi. Shiva is remembered as the sub-continent of the Somaka. Kşhemaka is the sub-continent of the leading mountain (Sumanas) and Dhruva that of the Vaibhrāja. 

17. In all these (sub-continents) the Devas, the Gandharvas and the Siddhas play and sport about along with the Chåranas. They are being seen along with them. 

18. There are seven rivers in every one of the sub-continents. They flow into the seas. I shall mention these seven Gangas by name, O ascetics. 

19. The following are the seven excellent rivers, viz. the Anutaptă, the Sukhi, the Vipaśhā, the Tridivă, the Kramu, the Amrutå and the Sukrutā. 

20. Those rivers grow towards those places where Väsava (i.e., Indra) showers (rains). They have plenty of water and (swift) currents. Thousands of other rivers flow into them. 

21-22. The delighted people of these territories always drink (the waters of) these rivers. Those people, viz. the splendid Shåntabhayas, the joyous auspicious Shaishiras, the Shivas, the Anandas, the Sukhas and the Kșhemakas along with the Dhruvas. The subjects who have settled in them are endowed with the disciplined conduct and behaviour of the Varnas (castes) and Aśhramas (stages in life). 

23. All the subjects were strong and free from ailments. They are devoid of sickness. Among them none deteriorates, and no one goes high up in arrogance (or there is no evolutionary and involutionary eras.¹.

1. The terms Utsarpini and Avasarpini are the Jain terms to indicate timècycles. Utsarpini is the ascending cycle and Avasarpini is the descending cycle. They are divided into six stages each viz. good-good, good, good-bad, bad-good, bad, bad-bad (MW p. 103). The use of Jaina terms like those of the Buddhists, in a Brahmanical work is not impossible. The next verse explains this by assuming the existence of a perpetual Treta yuga. 

24. There is no peculiar state of affairs as pertaining to the Yugas, conditioned by the four Yugas. A period like Tretå yuga is perpetually present there. 

25. These are the things to be understood in the five continents, Plakshadvipa etc. The assignment of period is in conformity with the conditions of the region. 

26-27. It should be known that the people in these continents beginning with Plakshadvīpa and ending with Shakadvipa, are handsome, well-dressed, strong and free from sickness. They possess adequately happiness, long span of life, strength, handsome features, health and virtuousness. Men live upto five thousand years. 

28-30. The continent of Plakṣhadvipa is prosperous and vast. All round, it abounds in wealth and food-grains. It abounds in divine medicinal herbs and fruits. It possesses all types of medicinal plants and herbs. Thousands of rural and wild animals of all varieties surround the regions. O excellent Brāhmaṇas, in its middle there is a great tree named Plaksha. It has been reckoned on a par with the Jambū tree (in the continent Jambūdvipa). The continent is named after that tree. In a place in the middle of the inhabited country, it is worshipped by all the people. 

31-32. That continent of Plakşhadvīpa is surrounded by a sea of sugarcane juice.¹ This sea is equal to Plakshadvipa in length and extent.

1. The Ikşhu is the river Oxus. The river is taken as a sea (De, p.179). Can it be regarded as a boundary surrounding Plakshadvipa? 

Thus, the position of Plakshadvipa has been recounted to you all succinctly and in the proper order. Now understand the continent Shalmala. 

33-34. Thereafter, I shall (now) recount the third excellent continent Shalmala.² 

2. Puranic description of Shalmala dvipa leads, M. Ali to

identify it with tropical Africa bordering on the Indian Ocean, including Madagasgar. 

The ocean of sugarcane juice is encompassed by the continent Shälmala that is twice as much as Plakshadvipa in extent. 

It should be known that there too are seven mountains that are the sources of precious stones. 

35. In those seven subcontinents even the rivers are sources of precious gems. 

The first mountain is named Kumuda. It resembles the sun in brilliance. 

36-37a. It stands with lofty peaks full of all minerals and rugged with clusters of cliffs. 

The second mountain here is well known by the name Uttama. It encircles the firmament with its peaks full of Haritala (yellow orpiment). 

37b-38a. The third mountain there is well reputed as Balahaka. It encircles the firmament with its peaks full of natural collyrium. 

38b-39a. The fourth mountain is Drona, and it is here that the great medicinal herbs Vishalyakarani and Mrutasañjivini (are found). 

39b-40a. Kanka is the fifth mountain there. It rises up magnificently. 

It is perpetually endowed with flowers and fruits. It is surrounded by tree and creepers. 

40b-41a. The sixth mountain there is Mahişha. It is like a cloud. On it the water-originating fire named Mahişha lives. 

41b-42. The seventh mountain there is called by the name Kakudmān. It is there that Vasava saves duly from the subjects many precious gems and keeps them to himself and approaches Prajapati with them. 

43. Thus, these are the seven mountains in the Shalmala continent. They are bedecked in jewels. I shall mention their splendid sub-continents. They are only seven (in number). 

44-48. The sub-continent of the mountain Kumuda is remembered as Shveta; that of Uttama is Lohita; that of Balāhaka is Jimüta; Harita is remembered as (the sub-continent) of Drona. The sub-continent of Kanka is named Vaidyuta and that of Mahisha is Månasa. The sub-continent of the Kakudmån is Suprada by name. These are the seven sub-continents and (the connected) mountains. Understand the rivers in them. 

They are the Jyoti, Shånti, Tuşhță, Chandra, Shukrā, Vimochani and Nivrutti the seventh among them. They are remembered as the rivers in the different sub-continents. There are hundreds and thousands of other rivers flowing near them. No man is capable of counting their number. 

Thus, the situation of the continent Shälmala has been recounted to you. 

49. In its middle there is a great Shalmali (silk cotton) tree reckoned on a par with the Plakṣha tree. It has large branches. The continent is named after the tree. 

50. The Shälmala continent is surrounded on all sides by the sea of liquor that is equal to Shålmala in extent. 

51. Listen to the subjects in the northern continents, O sages conversant with piety. Understand them even as I recount properly in the manner I have heard. 

52-53. I shall recount the fourth continent Kushadvipa¹ succinctly. The sea of liquor is surrounded on all sides by Kushadvipa that is twice as much as Shalmala in extent. Understand the seven mountains there as they are being described. 

1.    After detailing the main features of Kushadvipa M. Ali

concludes that it is identifiable with the tropical grasslands viz. Iran, Irac and the fringing lands of hot desert, op. cit. (pp. 40-41). 

54. It should be known that the mountain Vidruma is the first mountain in the Kushadvipa; the second one is the mountain Hema. 

55. The name of the third mountain is Dyutimän. It is a mountain resembling clouds. The fourth mountain is named Pushpavan and the fifth one is Kušheśhaya. 

56. The sixth one is Harigiri by name and the seventh is remembered as Mandara. The word (Manda means 'waters' and the mountain is called Mandara because it pierces or splits water. 

57. Their internal diameter is twice as much as the cross-section (Pravibhaga). 

The first sub-continent is Udbhida and the second one is Veņumandala. 

58. The third sub-continent is Rathäkära and the fourth one is remembered as Lavaņa. The fifth one is Dhrutimad Varsha and the sixth Varsha is Prabhākara. 

59. The seventh one is named Kapila. In all those (subcontinents) the Devas and the Gandharvas are the sanctifiers of the Varşhas and the subjects* are the lords of the universe (?) 

• Vă.P.49.54a. reads prabhasu (they are like the lords of the universe) in brilliance. A better reading. 

60. They play and sport about everywhere in great delight. There are neither robbers nor Mleccha (barbarous) tribes in them. 

61-62. The people are mostly white-complexioned, and they pass away in the due order (i.e., the younger ones only after the older ones). 

There too the rivers are seven. They are—Dhūtapādā, Shivă, Pavitra, Santati, Vidyut, Dambha and Mahi. There are hundreds and thousands of rivers other than these. They are not well known. 

63-64. All those flow to that place where Väsava showers: Externally the Kushadvipa is incircled by the sea of ghee (clarified butter). It should be known that the sea of ghee is equal to Kushadvipa in extent. 

Thus, the situation and position of Kushadvipa has been recounted to you all. 

65. Hereafter, I shall recount the extent of Krauñcha dvipa.¹ It is remembered to be twice as much as Kušhadvipa in extent.

1. M. Ali examines the description of this Dvipa from different sources and concludes that 'the Krauñcha dvipa of the Puråņas is represented by the basin of the Black Sea. (op. cit. pp. 45-46) 

 66-69. The sea with ghee as its liquid content is in contact with Kraunchadvipa. 

In that continent, the excellent mountain Krauñcha is the first mountain. Beyond the Krauñcha is the Våmana and beyond Vamana is the Andhakara. Beyond Andhakära is the mountain named Divavrut. The excellent mountain Dvivida is beyond Divåvrut. The great mountain Pundarika is beyond Dvivida. The Dundubhisvana is mentioned as the mountain beyond Puņdarika. 

These are the seven mountains of the continent Krauncha dvipa. They are full of precious gems. 

70. They are covered with different kinds of trees and creepers endowed with plenty of flowers and fruits. They are twice as much as each other in extent. They increase the delight of residents. 

71-74. I shall recount the sub-continents thereof by name. Understand them. 

The land (i.e. Varsha) pertaining (adjacent) to Krauncha is Kushala; that of Vamana is Manonuga; Ushna is mentioned as the third Varsha and it is beyond Manonuga. Pivaraka is beyond Uşhņa and Andhakära is beyond Pivara. Munideśha (land of the sages) is remembered by the learned men as the land beyond Andhakära. Dundubhisvana is mentioned as the land beyond Munideśha. The land is populated by Siddhas and Chåraņas. The people are remembered as mostly white complexioned. There too the rivers are remembered as seven in number in every sub-continent. They are splendid. 

75. The seven rivers Gauri, Kumudvatī, Sandhya, Rätri, Manojava, Khyati and Pundarikă are remembered as Ganga. 

76. There are thousands of other rivers flowing near them and approaching them (i.e., flowing into them like tributaries). They are large with plenty of water. 

77. The glorious Krauncha Dvipa is surrounded on all sides by the sea with curds and whey as its liquid content. This sea is equal to the Krauńcha Dvipa in extent. 

78-79. The Plakşhadvipa and other continents have been succinctly recounted. It is impossible to describe in due order the natural features of all these continents in detail even in the course of hundreds of years according to divine reckoning. It is difficult to describe in detail the creation and annihilation of the subjects therein. 

80. I shall recount Shäkadvipa¹ definitely as it exists. Listen even as I recount factually and realistically. 

1. Strangely enough, two scholars come to different conclusions about the location of Shakadvipa. M. Ali identifies it with the Monsoon lands of Asia where teak abounds viz, Malaya, Siam, Indo-China and southern China, while De identifies it with Tartary including Turkestan in central Asia (pp. 172-173). 

81. Its extent is twice as much as that of Krauncha Dvipa. It stands encircling the sea with curds and whey as its liquid content. 

82. There the territories of the general public are very sacred. The people die after a long life. Whence is their famine among them? (i.e., they do not experience famine). Whence is the fear from old age and sickness? 

83. There too there are only seven splendid mountains bedecked in jewels. The seven rivers are sources of origin of precious gems. Listen to their names from me. 

84. The first mountain Meru is said to possess (i.e., to be inhabited by) the Devas, the sages and the Gandharvas. The mountain named Udaya is golden, and it extends towards the east. 

85-86. The clouds take their origin there or go there for the sake of rain. To the west of it is the extremely great high mountain Jaladhara from which Väsava perpetually receives a large supply of water. Therefore, it pours showers among the subjects during the rainy season. 

87. To the north of it is the Raivataka, where the constellation Revati is perpetually established in the firmament as ordained by Lord Brahma. 

88. To the west of it is the extremely great mountain named Shyāma. Due to it, it is said, that the subjects here attained darkness of complexion formerly. 

89. To the west of it, it is remembered, is the great silvery mountain Aşhtagiri. To the west thereof is the impossible mountain" (Durgashaila), the great mountain belonging to Ambikä (Ambikeya) (but Ambikeya in Vā.p. 49.83) 

90. To the west of Ambikeya is the beautiful mountain Kesarin equipped with all medicinal herbs. It is from this that Väyu, the Prajapati, became possessed of Kesara*? 

*Vå.P.49.74 reads: sa chaiva Kesharityukto yato Vayuh pravayati. "That mountain is designated as Keśharin, whence the wind blows (all over the world). 

91. The first Varsha (sub-continent) is (away) from the mountain Udaya. That great Varşha is remembered as ‘Jalada'. The second (Varsha) of Jaladhara is remembered as Sukumara. 

92. The (Varşha) of Raivata is Kaumára; that of Shyama is Manivaka. The splendid sub-continent of the Asta mountain should be known as Kusumottara. 

93-95. The sub-continent of the mountain Ambikeya is Modaka and that of Kesara is Mahädruma. The dimensions of the continent such as narrowness, length etc. is to be reckoned in accordance with the Krauncha Dvipa. The great tree, the emblem of that continent is Shaka by name, and it has great height. It has great following (?) It deserves worship*. The territories of the rural folk are holy. They are endowed with the system of Chaturvarnya (having the four castes). The rivers too are extremely sacred (like) Gangă. They are of seven varieties (i.e., they are seven in number). 

* Vā.P.49.77b reads: Tasya pujam prayunjate for Bd.P.'s tasya pujya mahanugaḥ. 

96. They are:- Sukumari, Kumäri, Nalini, Venuka, Ikşhu, Veņuka ** (?) and the seventh one Gabhasti. 

** Though the list of the seven rivers of this continent is somewhat different in Vå.P. 49.91-94., the reading Dhenuka from that list may be accepted here to avoid repetition of Venuka in the list of seven rivers in this text. 

97. There are other rivers too, thousands of them with sacred waters and cool currents. They are splendid rivers flowing in the places where Väsava showers. 

98. Neither their names nor their magnitude can be adequately understood or fully enumerated. Those excellent rivers are very holy. 

99. The delighted folks of the clime, O Shamšhapāyana, drink the waters of those) rivers. This continent is vast and is situated in the form of a wheel. 

100. It is covered with the waters of the rivers and mountains that resemble clouds, that are wonderful and variegated by means of all sorts of minerals and that are embellished with jewels and corals. 

101. It is endowed with different kinds of cities and flourishing rural territories. The trees therein are laden with flowers and fruits all round (the year) and the continent abounds in wealth and food grains. 

102. It is surrounded on all sides by the sea with milk for its liquid content. The sea is equal to Shakadvipa in its extent. 

103. Therein, the rural regions, the mountains, and the rivers are splendid and sacred. The lands (sub-continents) are fully inhabited by persons following the discipline of the four castes and the stages of life. They, (the sub-continents) are seven in number. 

104. In those sub-continents there is no clash of castes or mixed castes. Since Dharma is practised unansweringly, the subjects enjoy exclusive happiness. 

105. There is no greediness amongst them nor the eagerness for deception as a result of rivalry and jealousy. There is no adversity among them. Everything is extremely natural and timely. 

106. In them there is no acquisition (imposition) of taxes. There is neither punishment nor persons worthy of being punished. They are conversant with virtue and piety. They protect one another by means of their adherence to their own respective duties. 

107. Only this much can be described in regard to that continent. Only this much need be heard in regard to the residents of Shakadvipa. 

108-111. I shall describe Puşhkara¹ the seventh continent. Understand it. The ocean with milk as its liquid content is externally surrounded on all sides by the continent Pushkara² which is twice as much as the Shakadvipa in extent. There is only one glorious mountain with huge rocky cliffs. It possesses peaks, clusters of cliffs of various (sizes and shapes), full of precious jewels. It is extremely lofty, and it has variegated ridges. This great mountain has diversified ridges in the eastern half of the continent. It is very extensive-of twentyfive thousand (Yojanas) — with a number of ridges. It rises up from the ground level upto thirtyfour thousand (Yojanas). 

1. Puşhkara is identified by M. Ali with Japan, Manchuria and the South-eastern Siberia op. cit. (pp. 42-44), while De identifies it with a portion of central Asia from the north of the Oxus including Western Tartary. Pushkara is a Sanskritisation of Bhushkara or Bokhara, op. cit. (p. 163). 

112. The mountain range Mänasottara covers half of the continent. It is situated near the seashore just like the rising moon. 

113. It rises upto a height of fifty thousand Yojanas. Its circular extent all round is also the same (number of Yojanas.) 

114. The same mountain is known as Mänasa in the western half of the continent. There is only one great mountain of inherent strength situated in two parts. 

115. The continent is surrounded on all sides by the sea with sweet water as its liquid content. This sea is as extensive on all sides as the continent of Pushkaradvipa. 

116-117. It is remembered that there are two splendid and sacred countries on that continent. They are opposite to the two ranges of the mountain Manasa. The sub-continent Mahāvita is outside the Mānasa mountain range. It is said that Dhatakikhanda is on its inner side. 

118. The men there live for ten thousand years. They are free from sickness. They have plenty of pleasurable experiences. They have attained mental powers (to a great extent). 

119. The span of life and the handsome features of all the people in both the Varshas are declared to be the same. There is no distinction among them as superior or inferior. They are equal in features and conduct. 

120. There is neither a robber nor an oppressor. There is no jealousy nor the fear of malicious envy. There is neither seizure nor the meting out of punishment. There is neither covetousness nor (secret) acceptance (of gifts). 

121. There is no (such distinction as) truth and falsehood or virtue and evil (i.e., all are truthful and virtuous). There is no agricultural activity or breeding of cattle or trade routes. 

122. The three Vedas, the (fourteen) Vidyas, the system of civil and criminal administration, the desire to serve and arts and crafts-all these are not present in either of the two sub-continents of Puşhkara. 

123. There is neither rain nor (the flow of) rivers. There is neither chillness nor hot atmosphere. There are no water fountains breaking through (the ground) here. There are no mountain cascades or springs. 

124. The season there is just the same as in the northern Kurus. The people are well pleased and contented in all the seasons. They are devoid of the onslaught of old age. 

125. Thus the entire mode of activity and life in the Dhatakikhanda and Mahavita in the continent of Puşhkara has been recounted in the due order. 

126. The continent Pushkara is surrounded by the sea with sweet water for its liquid content. This sea is equal to Puşhkara in extent and circumference. 

127. Thus, the seven continents are surrounded by the seven seas. The sea that is immediately after a continent is equal to that continent. 

128. Thus, the mutual increase in size, of the continents and the seas should be understood. The sea is called Samudra on account of the Samudreka¹ (the state of being plentiful) of the waters. 

            1. A popular etymology of Samudra "a sea'. 

129. The sub-continent is called Varşha² because the four types of subjects enter (Vishanti) or live (Nivasanti) in it and also because it accords pleasure unto the subjects.

2. Varsha a sub-continent' is traced to vish-'to enter’, ni-vas, 'ta live', rush—'to sport' and -vrush 'to strengthen'. 

 130. The root ruşh means "to sport about" and the root vrush means "to strengthen." Since the sub-continent enables the people to sport about and to stengthen their power for sexual dalliance, it is called Varsha. 

131. The sea is always filled (is in flow-tide) in the bright half along with the increase in the size of the moon. When the moon wanes and decreases in size in the dark half, the sea also subsides. 

132. It is natural that the sea gets filled when it fills itself. When it becomes reduced it gets reduced (with drawn) in itself. 

133. Just as the water in the boiler appears to increase due to its contact with fire, so also the water in the great ocean becomes increased by itself naturally. 

134. During the bright and dark fortnights when the moon rises and sets, the waters in the sea increase and decrease in a quantity that is neither more nor less than usual. 

135. The increase and decrease in the quantity of water of the sea in accordance with the increase and decrease in the size of the moon is five hundred and ten Angulas. 

136. During the Parvan days the increase and decrease of the waters of the ocean can be seen. The continents surrounded everywhere by water are remembered as Dvipas because of Dvirapkatva (i.e., the state of having water on either side). 

137. The sea is called udadhi¹ because it is the ultimate rest (Ayana) of water (Udaka).¹ Mountains without knotty ridges are remembered as Giris and those with them are Parvatas. 

            1. Etymology of udadhi 'a sea',

138. The mountain Gomeda in the Plakshadvipa is therefore called Parvata. The Shalmali (Silk-cotton tree) is worshipped by persons of great holy rites in the continent Shalmaladvīpa.² 

2. VV 138-140 explain why particular continents are named Shalmala, Krauncha, etc.

139. In the Kushadvipa, the stump of Kuśha grass is (worshipped) and it is called after its name. In thc Krauñchadvipa there is the mountain Krauñcha in the middle of the clime. 

140. The main tree in the Shaka Dvipa is Shaka and it is called after its name. In the Puşhkaradvipa, the Nyagrodha (holy fig tree) is bowed to by the inhabitants therein. 

141. The great lord Brahma, the overlord of the three worlds is worshipped there. Brahma, the Prajāpati, lives in that (sub-continent) along with the Sadhyas. 

142. There, the thirtythree Devas perform the worship along with the great sages. That lord, the most excellent of all the Devas is worshipped there by the Devas. 

143-144. Different kinds of jewels and precious gems originate (are quarried) in Jambūdvipa. 

In all these continents, the size of the subjects is respectively twice those of the earlier ones on account of the span of life and state of health, their adherence to celibacy, truthfulness and control of the sense-organs. 

145. The self-born lord protects the subjects both the sluggish as well as scholarly in the two sub-continents that had been mentioned in the Puşhkaradvipa. 

146. Raising up his rod of chastisement, lord Brahmå, the overlord of the three worlds, protects the subjects. That lord is the Minister of Vişhnu. He is the father and grandfather. 

147. The subjects always take in the meal that approaches them(automatically) by itself. The meal has great nutritive value and it consists of all the six tests. 

148. The great sea with sweet water as its liquid content envelops the halves of Puşhkara. The sea encircles it all round. 

149. Beyond it, appears the existence of a great world. It is golden. The entire ground is like a single rocky slab. It is twice as large as the sea. 

150. Beyond that world is a mountain that is circular at the terminals. It is partially visible and partially invisible. It is called Lokāloka. 

151. On this side of that Mountain is all brightness and beyond it is all darkness. Its height is remembered as ten thousand Yojanas. 

152. Its extent is also that much. It can go over the earth as he pleases. The Aloka (brightness) is in the midst of worldly activities and the absence of brightness (i.e., darkness) is beyond the mundane. 

153. All the worlds are included in the half that is bright and the dark regions are external ones. The (region having the absence of brilliance outside extends all round to the extent of the worlds within. 

154. It is circumscribed all round. It is encircled by water. (That portion) beyond the brilliant region stands encircling the cosmic egg. 

155-156. These worlds and the earth consisting of the seven continents are within the cosmic egg. The worlds are Bhürloka, Bhuvarloka, Svarloka, Mahas, Jana, Tapas and Satya lokas. This much constitutes the group of worlds. This much alone need be known about the ultimate end of the worlds and the great expanse beyond. 

157. In the beginning of the bright half of the lunar month the moon appears as though it rests on a pot (i.e., is crescent-shaped) in the western quarter. The body of the cosmic egg too is like that. 

158. It should be known that there are thousands and crores of cosmic eggs like this, above, below and sideways. The cause of origin thereof is the unchanging Ātman. 

159. Each of these is encircled by seven Dharanas*¹ (? Varanas-coverings) evolved of the Prakruti. In groups of ten or more (?), they sustain one another. 

* Vå.P.49.152b reads Karanaih 'By causes'. 

1. This is the Puranic concept of protective 'sheaths' round the universe (Brahmanda). The influence of Sankhya categories is obvious. 

"The Cosmic Egg consists of fourteen worlds arranged vertically follows: 

1. The Upper Regions: 

Satya Loka 

Tapo-loka 

Jana Loka 

Mahar Loka 

Svar' Loka 

Bhuvar Loka 

II. The Middle Region: 

The Earth 

III. The Lower 

Regions or Nether worlds: 

Atala 

Vitala 

Sutala 

Talatala 

Rasātala 

Mahå-tala 

Patala

All these are supported by Lord Shesa, the Scrpent-King. 

These lower regions are not dark or devoid of sunlight. They are full of light and have the affluence and comforts of the world of gods. Cf. Bh. P.V.24, VP.V.2. Vå. P. 50.1-54. 

Baladeva Upadhyâya makes out a plausible case for identifying the Netherworlds with the continent of America. (Vide: Purana-Vimarta, pp. 43-49). 

• The text is a bit obscure. Vå.P.50.9 (corresponding verse) reads: avam aalo kranantasya bhaunitasya na vidyats. 'In this way, there is no end to the objects evolved from bhūtas as they are infinite.' 

160. All of them are encircled mutually and are evolved mutually. All round this Anda (Cosmic egg) is situated the Ghanodadhi--sea of solidified waters. 

161-163. It stands, on being held all round by Vanoda (? Mistake for Ghanada), solidified water. 

The circular zone of the solidified water stands on being held by Tejas (fiery matter) all round, sidways and above. This fiery matter is like a ball of iron. It has a circular shape. 

It stands on being held all round by solidified air. Similarly, it is the either that holds and sustains the solidified air. 

164. The Bhutādi (the cosmic Ego) holds the either and Mahân (the great principle) sustains (supported) by the Infinite principle, the Avyakta (the unmanifest one). 

165-168. It is endless and unmanifest. It is subtle in ten ways (?). It is boundless. It is non-selfpossessed. It has neither a beginning nor an end. When compared with the supreme Being, it is non-permanent. It is Aghora (not terrible). It has no support. It is free from ailment. It is many thousand Yojanas away. It is non-concealed. It is darkness itself. It has no brilliance. It is unlimited. It has no space (or support). It is unknown even unto the Devas. It is devoid of all activities. It is well known as the extremity of darkness. It is non-brilliant at the extremity of the either. It is within the limit. It is the great abode of the lord. 

169-170. The Shruti says that that divine abode is inaccessible to the Devas. The regions well-known to the learned ones are called 'Loka's. They are situated within the jurisdiction of the great lord of the Devas. The regions which are beneath the Moon and the sun, are called the worlds of the universe, by the wise. 

171. The nether worlds beneath the Rasåtala are seven in number and those above them are also seven in number. O Brahmanas, there are seven Skandhas (layers) of the wind along with the Brahmasadana (abode of Brahma). 

172. Its movement is five-fold from the Patāla (Nether world) to the heaven. This is the extent of the universe. This is the ocean of worldly existence. 

173. The Living beings, originating from many species go about (here and there). They are beginningless and endless. The Prakruti stationed in (resting on) the Brahman is the cause of the universe. It is mysterious and variegated. 

174. The creation of the lord is extensive. It is not comprehended even by the Siddhas, of great fortune and nobility who can understand things beyond the pale of sense-organs. 

175-176. O excellent Brahmana, there is neither decline or decay nor transformation, nor end of the earth, water, fire, wind, ether, darkness, mind and the infinite body. This is endless everywhere. So, it is cited in wisdom. 

177-179. Previously his name has been mentioned by me while recounting the names (of deities). It is he who has been wholly glorified by the name of Padmanabha. He is omnipresent. He is worshipped in all abodes, viz. on the earth, the netherworlds, the firmament, the wind and the fire. Undoubtedly, He is worshipped in all the seas and in the heaven, this self-same Lord of great splendour is worshipped in darkness as well, it should be known. 

180. Lord Janardana is a great Yogin. His limbs are divided in many ways. This lord of the worlds is worshipped in all the worlds in diverse ways. 

181. Thus the worlds born of each other are sustained mutually. These Vikaras (products or effects) of the Avikarin (that which does not undergo change or distortion) are sustained by the relationship of the supporter and the supported. 

182. The earth etc. are the Vikäras (effects). They are restricted by each other. They are superior to each other, and they have penetrated mutually. 

183. Since they have been created mutually, they have attained stability. In the beginning they were without Visheshas, they are called Višheshas because they qualify others. 

184. The three (Elements) beginning with the earth and ending with Vahni (fire) * are limited ones. In view of the essence of the increase of qualities, they have Pariccheda (exact determinateness, concrete state) in particular. 

* The reading in the printed text is vadyanta which is meaningless. It should be vahnyanta in view of the mention of three elements. 

185. The accurate decision or judgement about the remaining principles is not perceived, owing to their subtleness (Shaukshmya). That earth is remembered as Vyaloka (something that has a special brilliance?) beyond all these other elements. 

186-187. All the Bhutas (elements) are circumscribed on all sides (and hence accommodated) in the space (or firmament) just as in big vessel smaller vessels are accommodated and due to their mutual support become smaller (to each other). Similarly, the different elements are considered ensconsced in the lustre of the firmament. 

188. The whole of these four elements are bigger and superior to one another. As long as these elements exist the period of creation lasts to that extent. 

189. It is as though as an interturning of threads that the different elements are considered enmeshed into one another. There can be no generation of an effect if Bhūtas (elements) are excluded. 

190. Hence, the differences which are of the nature of effects are declared to be limited. The differences such as Mahat and others are of the nature of cause. 

191. Thus, O Brahmaņas, the real situation comprising of the seven continents, oceans etc. has been recounted by me topic by topic as it exists-- (realistically). 

192. The partial transformation of the Pradhana with the cosmic form has been mentioned in detail. The zones have been enumerated. 

193. This entire universe is presided over by the glorious Lord. Thus, the seven groups of elements have mutually penetrated. 

194. Only this much of the situation (of the universe) can be recounted by me. Only this much has to be heard (i.e., listened to and understood) in regard to the situation of the earth and things connected with it. 

195. These seven Prakrutis sustain one another. I am not able to enumerate them with reference to their extents and dimensions. 

196. The Prakrutis are innumerable, above, below and at the sides. The situation of the constellations is in firmament in different zones and regions. 

197. The situation of the earth is thereafter in the form of circle or globe. 

Henceforth, O clever ones, I shall recount the situation of the earth.