16 - The Description of Bharata

Suta said:

1. “The (mode of) creation of the sub-continents in the auspicious Bhärata had been viewed thus alonc, by those who were conversant with the greatest principles. What shall I describe once again unto you?" 

The sage said:

2-3. "We wish to know more about) this sub-continent Bhärata¹ where these fourteen Manus, Svåyambhuva and others were born in the course of the creation of the subjects. 

1. This topic is discussed in details in other Puraņas also e.g. AP.118, VP.II.3, Va.P. 45.68-137. 

O excellent one, recount that to us." On hearing these words of theirs 

Romaharshana said:

4. "I shall recount to you all the subjects here in the Bharata Varsha. 

This is a mysterious sub-continent in the middle of the universe) where the fruits (of Karmas) are enjoyed whether auspicious or inauspicious. 

5. The sub-continent that is to the north of the ocean as well as to the south of the Himavăn, is called the sub-continent of Bhårata where the subjects are Bharati (pertaining to Bhårata). 

6. Manu is called Bharata because of his (efficiency in the) maintenance and nourishment of the subjects. That subcontinent is thus remembered as Bharata in view of the expression defined thus.¹ 

1. This is a new definition of Bhårata attributing the credit to Manu who is called Bharata, as he maintained the subjects. This supersedes the old tradition which attributed this name to Bharata the son of Nābhi. Cf. Mt.P.114.5-6. 

7. It is from here that heaven and salvation are attained and people go to the middle (?) and ultimate end.² Nowhere else on the Earth has the holy rite been enjoined on the human beings. 

2. This is claimed as the special featurt of India. Due to this special importance, Bhārata is called Karmabhūmi, cf. Bm.P.27.2, ML.P.55.21-22, Mt.P.114.6-7 also Siddhanta Siromani III.4. 

8. Understand that there are nine different divisions or zones of Bhårata Varsha.³ It should be known that they are separated by oceans and it is impossible to traverse from one to the other. 

3. Cf. MK.P. 57.5, Mt.P.113.7-9. This is a new definition which includes what is known as 'greater Bhårata’ today. It indicates the period when Hindu culture was assimilated by countries in the south and south-east Asia. V.S. Agrawala identifies some of the divisions of Bharata as follows: 

Indra-dvipa=Indradyumna or Andamans

Någadvipa=Nicobars (Nakkavara in Cola inscriptions) Tamraparni=Ceylon

Varuna-dvipa - Borneo

Kaseruman= Malaya-dvipa. 

It is suggested that Gabhastiman and Saumya may be identificd with Java and Sumatra (Mt.P. -a study, pp. 191-193). For the different opinions of scholars on the above identifications vide M. Ali; Geog. of Puranas, pp. 126-127. M. Ali contradicts the claim of Agrawala, Majumdar and others regarding the inclusion of countries in south East Asia in Bhäratavaršha (Ibid. pp. 128-130). M. Ali identifies them as follows: 

Tämravarna= Indian peninSuta south of the Kåveri.

Kaserumat=The coastal plain between the deltas of Godavari and Mahảnadi.

Gabhastimán = The hilly belt between the Narmada and Godavari

Saumya=The coastal bat west of the Indus.

Gandharva The trans-Indus region. 

Varuna-The Western coast of India.

But there are mere speculations of scholars. 

9-11. The nine divisions are--1) Indradvipa, 2) Kasherūmån, 3) Tåmravarna, 4) Gabhastimån, 5) Någadvipa, 6) Saumya, 7) Gandharva, 8) Varuna and this 9) is the island surrounded by the sea. This sub-continent (of Bhārata) extends north-south, from the source of the river Ganga to Cape Comorin, a thousand Yojanas (1 Yojana = 12 Km). The extent obliquely (i.e. the breadth )on the northern part is nine thousand Yojanas. 

12. All round in the bordering regions the sub-continent is colonized by Mlecchas (barbarous tribes). The Kiratas live in the Eastern border lands and the Yavanas in the Western border lands. 

13. The Brāhmaṇas, the Kşhatriyas and the Vaisyas live in the central areas and the Shūdras (are scattered) in different parts. They are well settled maintaining themselves by means of performance of sacrifices, wielding of weapons and carrying on trading activities. 

14-16. The mutual inter-dealings among those different castes continue (indefinitely), based on virtue, wealth and love, in regard to their holy rites. The conception of the different stages of life as well as of the Panchamas (outcastes?) is duly maintained here among these people who have the tendency and endeavour to attain heaven and Mokšha (Liberation). 

The ninth division which is an island is said to extend obliquely. He who conquers it completely is called Samrat (Emperor).

17. Indeed this world is Samrat. The firmament is remembered as Virăț. That (other) world is remembered as Svarăț. I shall mention in detail once again (later on). 

18-19. There are seven mountains of excellent knots and ridges wellknown as Kulaparvatas.¹ They are Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya, Shuktiman, the Ruksa mountain, the Vindhya and the Påriyatra. These seven are Kulaparvatas. There are thousands of other mountains near these mountains. 

1. Out of the seven mountain ranges mentioned here the Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya ranges are well-known. The Vindhya of the Puranas included the Satpură range south of the Narmadā, the Mahadeo Hills, the Hazaribagh Range and the Rajamahal Hills. Suktimán, according to De (p. 196) is the portion of the Vindhya-range joining Pariyátra and Rukšha mountains including the hills of Gondwana and Chhota Nagpur. But M. Ali, in the topographical Map of Bharata, shows it as a ring of ranges encircling the Mahanadi basin, very nearly coinciding the present Mahākosala (Puranic Dakšhiņa Kosala) region. 

The Pāriyātra mountain is the ring of ranges north of the Narmadā, nearly encircling the catchment areas of the Chambal and the Betwả and thus corresponds with the Aravallis and (modern) Western Vindhya. 

The Ruksa mountain represents the modern Vindhya from the source of the Sonar to the eastern ranges marking the catchment area of the river Son. (M, Ali. Op. cit., pp. 112-113.) 

20-23. They are not well known (i.e. well explored). They possess good and essential things. They are vast in expanse). Their ridges and peaks are of various shapes and sizes. They are² Mandara, the excellent mountain, Vaihåra, Dardura, Kolahala, along with Surasa, Mainaka, Vaidyuta, Våtandhama, Någagiri, the mountain Pandura (Pale white in colour), Tungaprastha, Krişhnagiri, the mountain Godhana, the Puşhpagiri, Ujjayanta, the mountain Raivataka, Shriparvata, Chitrakūta and the mountain Kütaśhaila. There are many mountains other than these. They are smaller than these, less well known and lesser number of living being’s dependent on them. 

2. Some of these mountains are identificd as follows: 

Mandara-A portion of the Himalayas to the east of Sumeru in Garhwal. The hill in the Banka sub-division of Bihar is, however, popularly believed as Mandara (De, pp. 124-125).

Vaihåra (?)

Dardura The Nilgiri hills (De, p. 53)

Kolahala =The Brahma-yoni hill in Gayă (De, p. 101)

Maināka =The Sewalik range from the Gangă to the Bias (De, p. 121)

Vaidyuta =The Gurla range, south of lake Manasasarovar; the Sarayù is said to rise in this mountain (De, p. 16)

Vatandhama (?)

Krishnagiri = The Karakorum mountain, Mus-tagh (De, p.104)

Godhana =Garatha Hills in Bana's Harsha-charita VI (De, p. 70)

Pushpagiri =The part of the Malaya range, the source of the Krutamála or Vaiga (De, p.164).

Ujjayanta=Mt. Girnar (Dc, p. 211) 

Raivataka=Mt. Girnar near Junagarh in Gujarat.

Shriparvata=The famous hill in Eastern ghat in Kurnool Dist. Andhra Pradesh.

Chitrakūta-Kamptanåth giri in Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh (De, p.50) 

24. The regions interspersed with these mountains are partially inhabited by Aryas and partially by the Mlecchas (tribal-barbarous-people). The following rivers (beginning with) the Gangå, the Sindhu and the Sarasvati are utilised by them for drinking purposes. 

25-27a. The foregoing three and the following rivers originate from the foot of the Himalayas¹, viz.: The Shatadru, the Chandrabhågå, the Yamuna, the Sarayū, the Iravatī, the Vitastå, the Vipäśhă, the Devikā, the Kuhū, the Gomati, the Dhūtapåpā, the Budbudå, the Druşhadvati, the Kaushiki, the Tridivă, the Nişhthivi, the Gandaki and the Chakshurlohita. 

1. The ranges of mountains described in note I p. 152 above are watersheds which bound wholly or partly the catchment areas of important rivers in India. Here is a list of rivers rising from the Himalayas. The modern names of the rivers are given in brackets: 

The Shatadru (Sutlej), the Chandrabhågå (Chenab), the Iravati (Ravi), the Vitasta (Jhelum), the Vipasha (Beas), the Devika (Deeg a tributary of the Ravi), the Kuhu (Kabul), The Dhūtapäpä (Sharada, with its head streams), the Budbuda (misprint for Bähudá-Rapti), the Drushadvati (Chitang, a tributary of the Ghaggar), the Kaushiki (Kosi) with its three headwaters. 

The Tridiva (?), the Nişhthivi (?)

The Chakşhurlohitá (Brahmaputra?)–M. Ali. Op. Cil. pp.114-115.

27b-29a. The following rivers are remembered as dependent on (i.e., originating from) the Pariyatra mountain:² The Vedasmruti, the Vedavati, river Vrutraghni, the Varņaśhă, the Nandanå, the Sadaniră, the Mahanadi, the Pāśha, the Charmanvatī, the Nūpā, the Vidišhā, the Vetravati, the Kșhiprä. and the Ananti (Avanti?). 

2. The modern names of the rivers are bracketed: 

The Vedasmruti (Banás), Vedavati (Berach), Vrutraghni (Banganga Utangan). These were the big, perennial rivers of ancient Matsya-desha (now a part of M. P.) The Varnāshā is W. Banas which flows west of Aravallis the Nandana (Sabarmati), the Sadanira (Sarasvati), the Mahanadi, the Pasha (If Päră=Pārbati), thc Charmanvati (Chambal), the Nūpā, (Gambhira), the Vidišha (Bes), the Vetravati (Betwa), the Kşhipră (Sipra); the Ananti (should be Avanti. It rises near Mhow) M. Ali. Op. cit. pp. 116-117) 

29b-32a. These rivers originate from the Rukşhavăn¹. They are sacred and their waters are crystal-like. They are: The Shona, the Mahanada, the Narmada, the Surasă, the Kriya, the Mandakini, the Dashárna, the Chitrakūță, the Tamasă, the Pippală, the Shyenă, the Karamodā, the Pišhāchika, the Chitropala, the Višhala, the Vanjula, the Vastuvähini, the (Sa) Nerujā, the Shuktimati, Mankuti, the Tridivå and the Kratu. 

1. The Puranic Mountain ranges are so much mixed up in our times that some rivers are attributed to either of them: 

The Shona)                        (These do not rise in the Puranic

            The Mahanada (mahånadi))  (Rukşha Parvata.

The Narmada                                   )      (

 The Surasa(?)                                 )      (

 The Kriya(?)                                    )         (

The Mandakini                                )       (

 The Dasharnă (Dhasan)             )          (

 The Chitrakută                   )        (These are rivers

 The Tamasă (Tons)                      )       (from Bundelkhand(M.P.)

The Pippală.) (Seems to be one river called)   ( 

The Shyena)      (Pippalishyeni as in Mt.P., (mod.) ( 

                           )       (name : Paisuni)

The Karamoda (Karam-nasha)                                       )  (

 The Pishachika                                                                      )  (

 The Chitropala                                                                      )  (

 The Vishala (Bewas near Sagar in M.P.)

 The Vanjula (As in Va.P. it should be Jambulă mod. Jammi. The Vastuvähini (Baghain, a tributary of the Yamuna)

The (Sa)Nerujă (rather Sumerujá as in Vå.P. (Sonar-Bearma) The Shuktimati (Ken)-M. Ali Op. cit. pp. 118-119. 

32b-33. The following auspicious rivers of holy waters have originated from the foothills of the Vindhya ranges². viz: The Tapi, the Payoșhni, the Nirvindhya, the Srupå; the river Nişhadha, the Veņi, the Vaitarani, the Kshipra, the Valá, the Kumudvati, the Toyå, the Mahågauri, the Durgā, and the Annashila. [Probably durga (difficult to cross) and anna-rather anta--shila (rocky within) are adjectives of Mahāgauri.] 

2. As noted above Puranic writers include even Shatpura hills in the Vindhya ranges. The modern names of the rivers are given in Brackets: 

The Tapi (The Tapti and Tapi also)

 The Payoshni (Pain-ganga-De, p. 150) 

The Nirvindhya (Newuj) R. mentioned in Meghaduta

            The Srpå or Shipra

 The Nişhadhå (Sind, on this Narwar, the capital of Nişhadhas was located)

 The Veņi (Wainganga)

 The Vaitarani (Baitarani)

 The Kşhipră (Probably the same as shipra)

            The Válā (?)

            The Kumudvati (Suvarna-rekha)

            The Toya (Brahmani) 

The Mahāgauri (Damodar)

 The following: Durga (difficult to cross) and anna (anta) Shila (full of rocks) are probably the adjectives of the Mahägauri-M. Ali-Op. cit. pp. 120-121. 

34-35. The Godavari, the Bhimarathi, the Krishnaveņa, the Vanjula, the Tungabhadra, the Suprayoga, the Bahya and the Kaveri are the rivers originating form the foothills of the Sahya range.¹ They flow to the south.

1. Most of these rivers continue the same old names though some of them are modified e.g. The Bhimarathi (Bhima), Krishnavenā (Krishná), the Vanjula (Mañjira), the Suprayogå (Vedavati. Its original name signifies easiness to bathe), the Bahya (Varadă, The AP. correctly reads it as Varada). 

 36. The following rivers have originated from the mountain Malaya.² All of them are auspicious and they have cool waters. They are: The Kritamála, the Tamraparņi, the Puşhpajati and the Utpalávati. 

2. Modern names of these rivers are bracketed: The Kritamälà (Vaigai), the Tämraparni, the Pushpajāti (or Pushpajă=Pambiar), the Utpalavati (Periyar). --M. Ali-Op. Cit. pp. 122-23.

37. The following rivers remembered as daughters of the mount Mahendra:³ The Trisamă, Rușhikulya, The Vamjulă, the Tridivă, the (A) bala, the Längulini and the Vamshadhară. 

3. The modern names of these rivers are given in brackets: 

The Trisama (Ghoda-hada, Bhagava, Patama--these three headwaters of the Ruşhikulyå have this collective name) 

Ruşhikulya (repeated under rivers from Shuktiman), the Vanjula (?), the Tridivå (collective name for Vegavati, Någavati and Suvarnamukhi the three headwaters of the Längulini). 

The Langulini (Längulia) -M. Ali--Op. cit. p. 24. 

38. The following rivers are remembered as originating from Shuktimán:¹ The Ruşhikulya, the Kumāri, the Mandagā, the Mandagåmini, the Krupå and the Palashini. 

1. The modern names are given in brackets:

 The Rușhikulyä (the same as mentioned above). 

The Kumāri (Suktel, joins the Mahanadi near Sonpur, Orissa), The Mandagă (Mand), The Mandagåmini (Mahånadi-proper), the Krupa (Arpå), Paläshini (Jonk in Raipur Dist. M.P.)–M. Ali-Op. Cit. p. 125. 

39. All these rivers are identical with the Sarasvati and the Gangå. They flow into the sea. All of them are remembered as the mothers of the universe and dispellers of the sins of the worlds. 

40-42. They have hundreds and thousands of ancillary tributaries. The following territories and realms have been founded on (the banks of) these rivers:² the Kurus, the Pånchalas, the Salvas, the Mädreyas, the Jangalas, the Shūrasenas, the Bhadrakäras, the Bodhas, the Pataccaras, the Matsyas, the Kušhalyas, the Saushalyas, the Kuntalas, the Käshis, the Kosalas, the Godhas, the Bhadras, the Kalingas, the Magadhas and the Utkalas. These are the realms in the middle of the country² and most of them have been recounted. 

2. The author of this Puraņa includes the following parts of India in "Madhyadesha". These are originally names of tribes applied to the land where they settled: 

Kurus: Between the Ghaggar in the West and the Ganga on the east and with forest belt on the north and the south. 

Panchalas -coterminus with modern Rohilkhand with the central portion of the Ganga-Yamuna doab added to it. 

Shalvas: Near Kurukshetra to the west of the Matsyadeśha. Do thinks it comprised of some portion of former Jodhpur, Jaipur and Alwar states (De, p. 175). 

Madreya or Madra: The region between the Råvi and the Chinab in the Punjab (De, p. 116). 

Jangala: generally associated with Kurus and called Kuru-Janjgala. Probably it occupied the wooded northeastern part of Kurus (M. Ali.Op. Cit. p.135). 

Bhadrakaras and Bodhas (along with Shalvas) occupied the border land of the Middle country (Madhya-desha of Puranas). 

Pataccaras on the south bank of the Yamună are located in Banda district (M. Ali. Op. cit. p. 171). 

The Matsyas: - consisted of the territory of the former Alwar state and some adjoining areas from former Jaipur and Bharatpur (De, p. 128). 

43. The land towards the northern extremity of the Sahya mountain where the river Godavari flows, is the most fascinating realm on the whole of the earth. 

44-45. A city named Govardhana¹ was built there by Rāma. Heavenly trees and divine medicinal herbs liked by Ráma were planted there by sage Bharadvája to please Råma. Hence the region of that excellent city became charming. 

1. Now a village in Nasik District of Maharashtra. Formerly it was an important centre of learning and Brahmaņas coming from that area are known as Govardhana Brähmaņas. It is mentioned several times in the famous Nasik Inscription of uşhasadāta (100 B.C.)-E.I. VIII p. 78. (Epigra phia Indica). 

46-51a. The following ones are the realms in the northern parts.² The Båhlikas, the Våtadhanas, the Abhiras, the Kalatoyakas, the Aparåntas (? Westerners), the Suhmas, the Panchalas, the Charmamandalas, the Gåndhäras, the Yavanas, the Sindhusauviramandalas, the Chínas, the Tušharas, the- Pallavas, the Girigahvaras (dwellers of mountain caves), the Shakas, the Bhadras, the Kulindas, the Päradas, the Vindhyachūlikas, the Abişhăhas, the Ulūtas, the Kekayas, the Daśhamālikas the Brähmaņas, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the families of the Śhūdras, the Kambojas, the Daradas, the Barbaras, the Angalauhikas, the Atris, along with the Bharadvājas, the Prasthalas, the Dasherakas, the Lamakas, the Tålaśhālas, the Bhūşhikas and the Ijikas. Now understand the realms of the eastern parts.¹ 

2 Generally realms or countries are named after the names of the tribes or peoples settled there. The identifications of the realms on northern part are based on M. Ali's discussion in his Geog. of the Puranas, pp. 137-146. D. C. Sircar's GAMI is also referred to and only the page no. is mentioned. 

The Bahlikas or Vahlikas=People of Balistan-region covered by the Bolon, Nari and Gokh rivers. It coincides with former British Baluchistan. But Balkh (N. Afghanistan) according to D. C. Sircar, p. 32. 

The Vatadhanas=probably Waziristan. But Panjab-Rajasthan region. Sircar p. 32. 

The Abhiras--South of Sauvira but east of the Indus-Western Part of Hyderabad, District Sind. 

The Kalatoyakas=Residents of Kalat region in Baluchistan.

 The Aparantas=This is the North-Western region called Aparita in Va.P.

The Suhmas (?)=This is in eastern India.

 The Panchalas=Rohilkhand(?) 

The Charma-mandalas or Charma-khanda at the mouth of the river Hab and the Churma island. 

The Gandharas=Kandahar-lower Kabul valley.

 The Yavanas=Ionians, Greeks. 

The Sindhu-Sauvira-Mandals=Sindhu and Sauvira are different region. Sauvira coincides with Rohri-Khairpur region of Sind, and the remaining portion is Sind. 

The Tusharas=Tokharians in north Afghanistan, but people on the Tochi according to M. Ali p. 142. 

The Pallavas or Pahlavas=Region adjoining the Hingol Valley on the Parikan river. 

The Shaka=Scythians. 

The Kulinda-The Same as Pulinda in Mt. P. Kunets of Kulu. But formerly they extended to Saharanpur and Ambala-Sircar p. 33. 

The Parada=The same as Parita in Vå.P.=Mithankot region of Dera Gazi Khan District Pakistan. But Parthians of Khorasan according to D.C. Sircar p. 33. 

The Kekayas People of the country between the Beas and the Sutlej (De, p. 97). 

The Kambojas=People from Kafirstan who colonised the Kunar basin. 

The Daradas=The same ancient tribe living in the valley of the Kisenganga in Kashmir. 

The Barbaras People migrated from Barbary or North Africa. 

The Prasthalas=The district between Ferozepur, Patiala and Sirsa (De, 159). 

The Dasherakas=Malwa? But Marwat region of Rajasthan—Sircar, p.35. 

The Lamakas=Probably the same as Lampåka or Lamghan of today associated with upper Kabul 

1. The ancient tribes and their locations from Eastern India are identified as follows: 

The Angas=The country about Bhagalpur including Monghyr (De, 7).

 The Colabhadras=The Coromandal Coast (?) 

The Kiratas=Tipara and Morung west of Sikkim. They lived from Nepal to extreme cast. (De, p. 100). 

The Tomaras=The Garo hills of southwest Assam (De, p. 205). 

The Tanganas=Country from the Råmgangă river to the upper Sarayü (De p. 204). 

The Hünadarvas=Country round Manasa-Sarovar? (De, p. 78).

 The Mudgarakas=Monghyr and country around(?)(De, p. 132). 

The Antargiris=Rajmahal hills in Santal Pargana Bengal (De, P. 8). But Sircar locates Antargiri and Bahirgiri towards the north of Assam (p. 36). 

The Maladas=A part of the district of Shahabad-The site of Vishva mitra's Aframa Acar Buxar (De, p. 100) Malda District of Bengal and Rajashahi and West Dinajpur of Bengal (M. Ali p. 151). 

The Pragivotisas=Kamarupa District in Assam. 

The Pundras=Between Anga and Vanga and on the north side of the Ganga (De, p. 155) (M. Ali, p. 151). 

The Videhas=Tirhut country between the Kosi and the Gandak to the north of the Gangå (De, p. 35). 

The Tamraliplakas=Tamluk in Midnapur District including Kontai (De, p. 203), (M. Ali, p. 152). 

The Mallas=Country round the Parasnath hills (parts of Hazaribagh and Manbhum Districts), but at Buddha's time they were at Pavā and Kusinagar (De, p. 123). 

The Magadha-Gonardas=Magadha is South Bihar. De identifies Gonarda with Gonda in Oudh (p. 71), but no such combined name is found in De and Sircar. 

The Bhargava-Angaya was the Yamuna-Meghna Doab (M.Ali, op. cit. p. 152), but he does not mention merely Bhargava as in this text. 

51b-55a. The Angas, the Vangas, the Colabhadras, the Kiráta tribes, the Tomaras, the Hamsabhangas, the Kašhmiras, the Tanganas, the Jhillikas, the Ahukas, the Hrūņadarvas, the Andhravākas, the Mudgarakas, the Antargiris, the Bahirgiris, the Plavangus, the Maladas, the Malavartikas, the Samantaras, the Právruşheyas, the Bhargavas, the Gopaparthivas (cowherd kings), the Pragjyotişhyas, the Pundras, the Videhas, the Tamraliptakas, the Mallas, the Magadhagonardas. These are remembered as the realms in the East. 

55b-59. Then, there are the other realms of the dwellers of the southern territories.¹ They are the Pandyas, the Keralas, the Colas, the Kulyas, the Setukas, the Mūşhikas, the forest dwelling Kshapaņas, the Maharashtras, the Mahişhikas, the entire realm of the Kalingas, the Abhiras, the Aişhikas, the Ațavyas (Forest-dwellers), the Säravas, the Pulindas, the Vindhyamauliyas, the Vaidarbhas, the Dandakas, the Paurikas, the Maulikas, the Ashmakas, the Bhogavardhanas (those who increase sensual pleasures), the Konkaņas, the Kantalas, the Andhras, the Kulindas, the Angáras and the Mărişhas. These are the lands of the south; understand the western regions. 

1. The following identifications are based on De. 

The Cholas=The Coromandal Coast to the South of the Pennar including Tanjore (p. 51). 

The Muşhikas=Travancore on the Malabar coast (p.134). But Sircar suggests that they were probably people living on the Muri River (p. 36). 

The Mahişhikas=Southern Mysore (p. 120), also Sircar

p. 39.

Setukas-People of Setubandha, Ramešhvara-Sircar p.38.

The Kalingas=South Orissa. (Puri and Ganjam Districts)—Sircar p. 39. 

The Abhiras=South-eastern portion of Gujarat about the mouth of the Narmadă (Sircar p.1.). 

The Vaidarbhas=Vidarbha, a part of Maharashtra.

 The Dandakas=Dandakäranya (Maharashtra) (p.52). 

The Maulika=If 'Mülaka', a part of Maharashtra near Ashmaka (p. 133). Mod. Aurangabad District (--Sircar p. 39). 

The Ashmakas=Aurangabad district and Bodhan country round about in Nizamabad District-(Sircar p. 40). 

The Bhogavardhanas= (Mod. Bhokardan Taluqa of Aurangabad District (Sircar, p. 40). 

The Ka(Ku)ntalas=Southern Maharashtra and Northern Canara District--now a part of Karnataka. 

The Kulindas=Garhwala (p.106). But it is surprising that it is mentioned as a state in the South. 

60-63a. (Now) know the realms in the western regions.¹ They are the Sūryårakas, the Kalivanas, the Durgalas, the Kuntalas, the Pauleyas, the Kirătas, the Rūpakas, the Täpakas, Karīțis, the whole of Karamdharas, the Näsikas, the others who are in the valleys of the Narmadā, the (Saha) Kacchas, the (Sa)måheyas, the Sarasvatas, the Kacchipas, the Suraşhtras, the Anartas and the Arbudas. The above realms are the western ones. Now listen to those who reside on the Vindhyas:² 

1. Some of these can be identified as follows: 

The Kiratas-Possibly a reference to Kirata settlement in the West.

The Nasikas=Nasik, now in Maharashtra.

 The Kacchas=Cutch, now in Gujarat State.

 The Anarta=Gujarat and a part of Malwa (De, p. 8). 

 The Arbuda Country around mt. Abu (De, p. 16).

2. The following can be identified as per De and M. Ali. 

The Karusas=The country around Rewa (De, p. 95). 

The Mekalas=Country round Amarkantaka, the source of the Narmada (De, p. 130). 

 The Utkalas=Orissa.

 The Dasharna=Modern Eastern Malwa-(Sircar, p. 43). 

 The Bhojas=Country around Bhilwara in the Chambal basin (M. Ali p. 159). Sircar identifies them with the people of Vidarbha who founded a Kingdom in Goa (p. 43). 

The Kishkindhakas=Kikarava in other Puraņas. Sircar identifies this Kishkandhå with mod. Kalyanpur, South of Udaipur Division (p. 43). 

The Tošhalas=It is the Southern part of Kosala or Gondwan District round Tosali (Mod. Dhanti) in Puti District (De, p. 43). 

The Kosalas=Şircar identifies with Dakşhiņa (Southern) Kosala-Mod. Raipur, Sitapur, Santalpur Districts. 

The Vaidišha=Eastern Malwa with Vidišhā or Bhilasa as the capital. 

The Tripura=The region round Tewar--This covers upper Narmadā valley (present Jabalpur and parts of Mandla and Narasimhapur Districts.) 

The Naişhadhas=Marwar with Narwar as the Capital (De, p.141). 

The Anupas=South Malwa. Country on the Narmada about Nimar (De, p. 8). 

The Vitihotras=The country is founded in the South by the Narmadă and NorthEast, West by the Vindhya. The centre was Satwas 30 miles NorthWest of Harda. 

The Avantis=Country around Ujjain. 

The Tundikera=M. Ali locates it within the Narmada basin around the town Sainkheda (p.161). 

The Niharas=Location uncertain, D. C. Sircar GAMI,

p. 45. 

The Hamsa-margas People of Humza in NorthWest Kashmir. This tribe had a location there—D. O. Sircar Ibid.

p. 38 and 43. 

The Kupathas=Hill tribes in the NorthWest of India. 

63b-66. The Maladas, the Karüşhas, the Mekalas, the Utkalas, the Daśhårņas, among the excellent ones the Bhojas, the Kişhkindhakas, the Tośhalas, the Košhalas, the Traipuras, the Vaidiśha, the Tuhundas, the Barbaras, the Şhațpuras, the Naişhadhas, the Anūpas, the Tundikeras, the Vitihotras and the Avantis. All these realms are founded on the ridges of the Vindhya. 

Hereafter, I shall recount the realms founded on the mountains (Hill-tribes). 

67-68a.¹ They are the Nihiras, the Hamsamärgas, the Kupathas, the Tanganas, the Shakas, the Apaprāvaranas, the Orņas, the Darvas, the Hūhukas, the Trigartas, the Mandalas, the Kiratas and the Tåmaras.

1.    The Mountain-system described in this with Mt. Meru

as the centre is substantiated by the geographer M. Ali. in Geog. of the Puranas, pp. 47-59. For the modern names of the Puranic mountains vide Supra Ch. 1. p.11 FN.1. 

*  VÅ.P.46.21b and 22a is found combined here as Bd.P.I. 2. 18.21. This being the translation of Bd.P., the text of the Bd.P. (though slightly confusing) is followed.

* VA.P.46.38b-anubhushata-(be believed) by one desirous to comprehend. 

68b-69. Sages have said that there are four Yugas, in the Bharata sub-continent, viz. Kruta, Tretá, Dvåpara and Tişhya (Kali). I shall mention their detailed divisions wholly later on.