43 - The Traditional Duties of Brahmanas 

Chapter 43 in the NP is composed of the text of chs. 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191 and 192 of Mbh. Shanti Parva. As all the verses in these chapters are incorporated en bloc in the NP, when the text of the NP becomes unintelligible the Mbh. text is referred to and the reading in the Mbh. is suggested as the probable emendation. When NK differs, his interpretation is also recorded. 

Bharadvaja said: 

1. If the wind is the lord of the Pranas and it is the wind alone that functions, breathes and speaks, there is no purpose served by the Jiva, (the individual soul is superfluous). 

2. If the heat belongs to the fire, (the element called the Fire), if it is perceived through fire and if the fiery element digests (food, etc.) it, the Jiva, is futile. 

3. When a creature dies, the so-called individual soul is not perceived leaving. Only the wind leaves him off and the heat is extinguished. 

4. If however, the individual soul is identical with Asu2 (i.e., Prana, the vital wind) and if it has contact with the wind, it may be seen on a part with the zone of the wind along with the groups of Maruts. 

2. Vasu in the NP seems to be a misprint for Vayu in the original (Mbh. Shanti 186.4). The verse then means: If life is composed of mere air and if it ends by the departure of the wind from the body, it will then mix up with another part of (the outer) atmosphere and would be visible like a whirlwind (vatyachakravat-NK).

5. Or if the contact be with it (the wind) and if it perishes thereby like a pot of water due to its being released (separated) from a great ocean.3

3. The verse is obscure even if vv. 5 & 6 are taken together. NK however, treats them separately. 

According to NK, v. 5 anticipates and replies the Digambara Jaina objection that the Jiva is always associated with eight types of Karmans and is never seen separate or independently distinct from them. NK is obviously not correct in limiting the ashta-karma-prakruti doctrine to the Digambaras only as the Shvetāmbaras (in fact all Jainas) hold it. NK reads Samshleşho yadi vatena instead of NP's yadi va tena (which is a bit obscure) The translation: “If the Jiva-the individual soul-be in contact with the assemblage (of karmans) dominated by the wind-element and if the Jiva be different from that assemblage, when the assemblage (of karmans) is destroyed like a vessel of water from which the dead-weight of stones is jettisoned it becomes free and floats in the sea.” 

Jainas compare the soul covered with Kårmic matter to a gourd plastered with clay, due to the weight of which it sinks down in water. But when the clay is washed off, the gourd naturally and automatically comes up and floats. So does the Jiva, free from Karmans, goes straight up to Moksha. The Jiva-gourd analogy of Jainas is better than the above Mbh. analogy.

6. If anyone pours water into the well or places the lamp into the fire, it perishes immediately. Similarly, the individual soul too perishes instantaneously.4

4. Bharadvaja, as a Pārva-pakshin, raises another objection. If as you say, Jiva (individual soul) be a portion of the Brahman, the Jiva gets extinguished in the Brahman, just as water poured into a well or a lamp (after being extinguished) become one with fire (Sanghata-nashe brahmantargatasya jivasya svarupa-nashah NK). 

7-8. The body consists of the five elements and (they say that) it is in this that the soul lives. Therefore, if one of the elements perishes all the others also must undoubtedly perish. If food (and beverages) are not taken in, the watery element perishes. The wind element perishes by means of the restraint of the breath. The (gastric) fire perishes by abstaining from taking food and if anything is taken to purge the belly.5

5. Mbh. (ibid) 186.8 reads nashyate koşhtha-bhedat kham for koshthabhedártham of the NP. The Mbh, implies disappearance of the element of space (kham) if excretions stop.

9. Through sickness, wounds and similar distress the earth element also gets shattered. If anyone of these elements is afflicted, the whole mass of the elements perishes. 

10. If that (body constituted of five elements) perishes, what is it that the individual soul pursues? What is it that the individual soul feels afflicted? * What does it hear or speak? 

*NP “afflicted” but Mbh. “Does it know” (Vedayate) XII 10-186.

11. “When I am in the other world this cow will redeem me.” A person thinks like this, offers the gift of a cow and then dies. But whom is it that the cow will redeem? 

12. When the cow, the giver (of that cow) and the acceptor-all these are dissolved here in this world, simultaneously, whence can there be the reunion of all of them? 

13. Whence can these be enlivened again-he who is swallowed up by birds, he who falls down from the top of a mountain and he who is consumed by fire? 

14. If the root of a tree is cut, it does not grow again, When a man is alive6 all his parts function. But how will the dead come back again? 

6. For jivanyasya pravartante, Mbh. (ibid) v. 14 reads bijanyasya pravartante “It is seeds which put forth sprouts.”

15. All the individual souls had been created formerly and they revolve again and again. The dead ones perish even as the seeds perish one after the other.7

7. For pranašhyati in the NP, Mbh: (ibid) v. 15 reads Pravartate “seeds come forth from seeds”. NK. explains: Semen virile is the seed of the body and not adrushta “the unseen” or Karma. 

Here ends ch. 186 from the Mbh. Shanti.

16. O Brahmana, this is the doubt that surges in my heart. O omniscient one, clarify it since I depend upon you (and have approached you for this). 

Sanandana said: 

17. O excellent sage, Bhrugu the son of Brahma who was asked thus by him spoke again to clear his doubts. 

Bhrugu said: 

18. When the individual is killed or dies himself the Pranas cease to exist.8 The living being (i.e., his soul) transmigrates to another body and this body decays and becomes shattered. 

8. For na pranah Shanti jivasya of the NP v. 18, Mbh. (ibid) ch.187.1 reads na pranasho sti jivasya: It means: there is no destruction of the individual soul and of whatever he has given (as gift) or of other acts.

19. The Jiva is not dependent on the body. It does not perish when the body perishes. Just as the fire is seen (to be present) even after the sacrificial twigs are completely burned. 

Bharadvaja said: 

20. (You say) that when they (the sacrificial twigs) perish the fire does not perish. But after the fuel has been used up the fire is not verily seen. 

21. Hence, I understand that if fire is extinguished without further addition of fuel, it definitely perishes since, where it goes is not known. There is no proof of its existence. 

Bhrugu said: 

22-25. (You say as follows:-) After the twigs have been used up the fire is not seen. I understand that the tranquil fire without fuel does perish since where it goes is not known. There is no proof of its existence. (Yet understand this.) Just as the fire is not perceived after the consumption of fuel as it has vanished into the ether, and so is without any base and as it is difficult to be perceived, so also, when the body is forsaken the Jiva remains like the ether (invisible). Since it is very subtle it does not perish,9 undoubtedly in the same way as the fire. The fiery element sustains the Prana, May that be understood as the Jiva. 

9. For na nashyate susukshmatvat, Mbh. (ibid) v. 6 reads na grhyate (the soul) cannot be seen (or inferred).

26-27. The (gastric) fire that is sustained by the wind (i.e., the body temperature is sustained by respiration) perishes when the breath is curbed. When the fire of the physical body perishes the insentient body falls down and merges into the earth. Indeed, the ultimate goal of the mobile and immobile beings is the earth. 

28-29. The wind follows (or merges into the ether; the fiery element too follows it. Since all the three constitute one unit the set of two (viz. the earth and water) is established on the earth. Where there is the ether, the wind is present too. The fire is present where there is the wind. These must be known to be without forms but the embodied beings have forms. 

Bharadvaja said: 

30. O sinless one, if the fire, the wind, the earth, the ether and the water are present in the embodied beings, what are the characteristics of the Jiva. Kindly explain this to me. 

31. I wish to understand of what nature is the Jiva in the bodies of living beings which are constituted by a set of five things viz. the elements) and take delight in five things (e.g., taste, smell, etc.) and have five cognitive senses.

32. The body is a mass of flesh and blood, fat, bones and sinews. When it is shattered and split the Jiva is not perceived. 

33. If the body is without a Jiva but it contains only the five elements, who experiences the pain in the course of mental and physical distress? 

34. O sage, by means of his pair of ears, the five hears what is uttered, but when the mind is preoccupied he does not hear it. Hence, the Jiva is futile. 

35. What should be seen, everyone sees with the eyes in collaboration with the mind. When the mind is agitated, the eye does not perceive though it may look at things. 

36. He does not see, or smell or hear, or speak or know the touch when he (the agent called Jiva) is under the influence of slumber. 

37. Who is it that is delighted? Who is infuriated? Who bewails? Who is alarmed? Who shuns? Who wishes? Who meditates? Who is malicious? Who reads or utters words? 

Bhrugu replied: 

38. The body holds one that is common to the five. It is the Antardiman10 (the inner immanent soul). It is he who perceives the odour, taste, sound, touch, form and the Gunas (attributes). 

10. NK explains that it is the mind that is the ‘seer' or 'experiencer'. When the mind is associated with sense organs, one can sec etc., but when, as in sleep or the Samadhi state, the mind is dissociated with the body, one does not see, etc.

39. The Antaratman is present throughout the body, in the body consisting of five elements; it perceives the five Gunas, it is this that experiences pleasure and pain always. Separated from it the body does not understand anything. 

40. When there is no perception of colour, no touch and no heat in the fire within the body, the fire is tranquil. When the bodily fire (temperature) is cooled down, (the body) dies by being forsaken by Jiva (who does not die). 

41. The whole of this (universe) (?) is full of water; it is the water that is the physical body of the embodied being. There the Atman is Brahmi in all the living beings. He is the creator of the worlds. He is called Manasa.11

11. According to NK 41b means: In those waters, it is the soul which manifests itself in the mind. That soul is god Brahma, the creator of the world, who abides in all things.

42. That which rests in the physical body like the water-drop on the lotus-leaf is the Atman. Know that the Atman is conducive to the welfare of all worlds. 

43. Know him as the indwelling soul (Kshetrajña), the eternal well-wisher of the worlds. Know that the Guņas (attributes) of the Jiva are Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. 

44. Some say that insentience12 is the attribute of the Jiva. But it is active and it activates everything. Those who know the kshetra (the physical body) say that the Supreme Alman has set the seven worlds in motion. 

12. The gross mis-print in the NP acetana for Sacetana in the Mbh. (ibid) v. 26 makes the verse self-contradictory. The verse so emended means: they (the knowers of Reality) gaya that the soul is characterised by consciousness and exists with the attribute of life. (Jivanguna, viz. the body, sense-organ and the mind-NK).

45. When the physical body is changed, there is no destruction of the Jiva. O sage, those who have not under stood this, call this as untrue. The Jiva moves about in the world (only) after being covered by the body.13 And its change of body takes place due to its fifth stage (death). (The other four being infancy, childhood, youth and old age). 

13. dehántaritah: Better: All that the Jiva dots, is going from one body to another.

46. Thus hidden in all the living beings, the Atman always moves about. It is perceived through the subtle and excellent intellecț14 by the seers of the truth. 

14. Viz. the realization of one's identification with the Brahman-NK.

47. (Defective) The wise person continuously practising Yoga in the initial and final watches of the night and with his soul sanctified by assimilating pure food realizes the Supreme soul within his own soul. 

48. By dint of the serenity and composure of the mind, and by giving up both auspicious and inauspicious Karmans, one should stabilise oneself in the Atman and be delighted in the mind. He shall thereafter attain infinite bliss. 

49. The mental fire in the bodies is called the Jiva (in the bodies). In the matter of decision regarding Bhutatman, the creation of the lord of subjects15 is as follows: 

15. Or: The Jiva is the element of fiery effulgence that abides in the mind. It is from the Lord that all this creation has come forth. This is the conclusion to be deduced after investigation into the origin of the soul and creatures. 

Here ends ch. 187 of the Moh. Shanti.

50. At the beginning (of creation) it was the Brahmanas alone that Brahma the Prajapati created. They were evolved out of his own brilliance. Their lustre was like that of the Sun and fire. 

51. Thereafter the Lord created the following things as conducive to the attainment of heaven, viz. truthfulness Dharma (virtue), the eternal Brahman (i.e., the Vedas), the conventional duties and purity both physical and mental. 

52-53a. (Defective) Devas, Danavas, Gandharvas, Daityas, Asuras and the great serpents, Yakshash, Rakshasas, Nagas, Pishachas and human beings (were created). The human beings (were classified) into Brahamans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.16 

16. V.53a reads: 

Brahmanah Kshatriya Vaishyah Shüdranam asitas tatha

The line is defective as the first three words are in the nom, case (which is an enumeration of Varnas or castes in continuation of the previous verse). And those words in the nom. case cannot be connected with Shudranám asitas tatha. Nor can these words be related with 53b which is an independent speech of Bharadvaja. This is due to the mis-quotation in the NP of the Mbh. Shanti 188.4-5 which are as follows: 

Brahmanah Kşhattriya Vaishyah Shudras cha dvija-sattama |

ye chanye bhūtasanghånam varnás tansh chapi nirmame ||

Brahmananam sito várnah Kshattriyanam tu lohitah |

Vaishyanam pitako varnah Shudranm asitas tatha ||

The NP quoted the 1st three words from 4a of the Mbh. and the last three words from 5b of the Mbh and composed its v. 53a. Hence the defectiveness. The NP abounds in such misquotations to the despair of the translators who merely depend on the text of the NP as it is.

Bharadvaja said: 

53b-54. (You say) that one Varna17 (caste) in the fourfold division of men is different from the other. What is the criterion thereof? Sweat, urine, faecal matter, phlegm, bile and blood circulate within everyone. Then on what basis is the caste divided?

17. NK explains that the word Varna which means complexion or colour here represents certain attributes (varnena játya varnah satvikatvadi bhidyate). 

55. Among both the mobile and immobile beings there are innumerable groups and classes. Among these different Varnas how is a particular Varna arrived at? 

Bhrugu said: 

56. Originally, there was no distinction among the people. The whole universe formerly created by Brahma was Brahmanical by nature. Though originally created as equals by Brahma, it was as a result of their Karmans (acts) that people got divided into different castes. 

57. Some of those Brahmanas became fond of erotic enjoyments. They were furious by temperament. They were violent and zealous. They liked risky adventures, They forsook their original duties (of Brahmanas), became red in complexion (i.e., full of Rajo-guna) and attained Kshatriya-hood.

58. Those Brahmanas, who maintained themselves by means of agriculture and lived by tending and rearing up cattle and did not practise original duties as Brahmanas (grew) yellow (a mixture of rajas and tamas) and became Vaishyas.

59. Those Brahmanas who were engrossed in violence and untruthfulness, greedy and maintained themselves by means of all types of jobs (even forbidden to Brahmanas) and were thus fallen from purity of conduct became dark (full of Tamoguna) and degenerated to the status of Shudras.

60. Thus the (original) Brahmanas affected adversely by these activities were changed into other castes. The power of austerities of those Brahmanas who maintained their prescribed religious rituals and duties, does not perish.

          61-62a. There are many sub-divisions of Brahmanas in the different places, but all of them observe holy virtues, rites and restraints. They perpetually retain the Brahman (i.e., they study the Vedas regularly). Brahman (i.e., Vedas) had already been created formerly. Those who know them understand (everything else).

62b-c. There are many types of Pishachas, Rakshasas, Pretas and Mleccha (outcaste) tribes. The creation by (Brahma's) mind is verily intent on the religious rituals and duties.18

18. This verse combines 18a and 20b from the Mbh. (ibid) ch. 188. NK interprets 20b (i.e., 62b and c in the NP): The other creation is like the superimposition of the illusion of a serpent on a string and hence is called mental (manasi). NK. takes dharma in the sense of Yoga. The mental creation rests upon Yoga. 

Here ends chapter 188 in the Mbh. Shanti.

Bharadvaja said:

63. O excellent Brahmana, how does one become a Brahmana or a Kshatriya? O Brahmanical sage, how does one become a Vaishya or a Shudra? O excellent one among the fluent speakers, please explain it unto me.

Bhrugu said:

64. One who is as follows is called a Brahmana. He should have been consecrated duly by means of post-natal purificatory rites and other holy rites as well and should himself be pure. He must possess the learning (recitation, etc.) of the Vedas. He must strictly adhere to the religious duties and rites prescribed for Brahmaņas.19

 19. The duties of Brahmanas are the everyday performance of ablution, Sandhya, (twilight-prayer), Japa, Home (fire worship), worship of deities, performance of Vaishvadeva and hospitality-NK.

65. He must closely follow the rules of cleanliness both mental and physical and pure conduct. He must have soundly studied the different lores. He must be fond of his preceptors and elders. He must perpetually observe the holy vows and rites. He must be devoted to truthfulness. Such a person is verily called a Brahmana.

66. He in whom these qualities are seen is remembered as a Brahmana, viz. Truthfulness, charitable gifts, non-maliciousness (absence of wickedness), kindness, mercy, sympathy and austerity.

67. One who is as follows, is called a Kshatriya, He practises the duties assigned to a Kshatriya, i.e., the military profession). He practises studying the Vedas He must be interested in giving religious gifts and collecting taxes. *

*In my (Venk. Edt.) text, the reading is Danadanaratir 'One who likes to give charitable gifts but not accepting them from others' (but collecting taxes from subjects).

68. Derivation of the word Vaishya is as follows: - vishati ashu iti Vaishyah.20 One who enters (worldly transactions) immediately is called a Vaishya. Through the animals he is interested in taking to agricultural activities. He loves to donate charitable gifts and is pure. He is endowed with the study and the learning of the Vedas.

20. One who earns reputation by cattle-rearing, agriculture, commerce -NK.

69. One who is always habituated to all kinds of diet, one who regularly performs all odd jobs, is impure, one who has forsaken the study of the Vedas and one who has no conventional duty is remembered as a Shudra.

70. If a (born) Shudra possesses all good characteristics and a (born) Brahmana does not possess the same that Shudra is no longer a Shudra and that Brahmana is no longer a Brahmana.

71. By every possible means restraint be put on covetousness and anger. This as well as self-control is the holiest of all wisdom.

72.Those two (covetousness and anger) attempt to destroy welfare. They must be avoided by all means. One shall save one's prosperity and glory from perpetual anger;21 one shall save one's austerity (power of penance) from malice.

21. nityam krodhat from the Mbh, is better, “one should always protect from anger,” etc.

73. One should save one's learning from (the feeling of both) honour and dishonour and one should save oneself from errors and mistakes.

74. O Brahmana, he is a real renouncer and intelligent man, he whose every religious enterprise (e.g., sacrifice) is unfettered by longing expectations and he who has dedicated everything (in his possession) to Tyaga (renunciation for the sake of others).

75. One should refrain from injuring or doing violence to all living beings; he should be friendly unto all. Renouncing all possessions and monetary gifts he should subdue his sense organs intelligently.

76-78. One shall abide by that which causes no sorrow, 22 one that will afford him freedom from fear here and hereafter. The (Brahmana) should be perpetually engaged in austerities, self-control, restraint over the mind. He should be desirous of conquering what is not conquered. One should remain unattached to worldly affairs. What can be perceived by means of the sense organs is Vyakta (the manifest). That which is beyond the scope of the sense organs, and which can be grasped by inference from its symptoms and characteristic features should be known as Avyakta (unmanifest). If there is a nuclear conviction of reality one should continue to ponder more and more. When one is (thoroughly) convinced (about the truth)23 he should steady the mind therein.

22. NK. takes ashokam sthanam as the soul and interprets “One should be absorbed in the meditation of the Atman.”

23. Visrambha- that which can be relied on such as the words of the spiritual preceptor. 

79. The mind shall be controlled through the Prana (Breath-control) and the Prana should be concentrated in the Brahman. One attains Nirvana (extinction as a prelude to salvation) through Nirveda (complete detachment). One should not be worried or think of anything else.

    80-81a. O Brahmana, it is verily by dispassion (and renunciation) that one gets (real) happiness. One should always be (striving) for purity and should be endowed with the norm of the conduct of the good.

81b-82a. Highest compassion for all beings-all these constitute the characteristic of twice-borns.24 He (a twice-born) should observe Truthfulness as a sacred vow and should practise Penance, (mental and physical) purity. It is the truth that creates the subjects. The whole world is sustained by Truth. One goes to heaven only by truthfulness.25

24. Here cods ch. 189 of the Mbh. Shanti 

25. The original (Mbh. Shanti. ch. 190) v.1 is a general statement: Truth is the Brahman. Truth is the Penance. The whole universe is upheld and sustained by Truth. It is through Truth (fulness) that one goes to heaven.

82b-83. Falsehood is the feature of darkness; one is led downwards through darkness. Those who have been caught hold of by darkness, those who have been enveloped by darkness do not see the brilliant light (of heaven). They say that Naraka (hell) is darkness itself; it cannot be brilliant with light.

84. Both Satya (truth) and Anruta (falsehood) is attained by the people roaming over the Earth. Even in that case, the predilection in the world should be thus towards Truth and falsehood.

 85-86. Light and darkness indicate Dharma and Adharma as also happiness and misery. Wise, foresighted persons who observe what is created in the world affected by miseries and pleasures both physical and mental but both originating from or leading up to Asukha (i.e., unhappiness), do not become deluded. A clever man should (therefore) endeavour to get liberated from misery.26

26. V. 85 in the NP is Mbh. (ibid) v. 4b and 6a and v. 86 is Mbh. v. 6b and 7a.

87-88. Both here and hereafter pleasure is non-permanent. Just as the light of the moon eclipsed by Rahu becomes faded and dim, so also the happiness of living beings, oppressed by darkness, perishes.

89. Happiness is said to be of two kinds, viz. the physical and the mental. Here, in this world verily all actions in regard to any object are said to be pursued for the sake of happiness. As to the other world there is nothing better than Apavarga (salvation). That alone is to be desired. It is a desirable quality. Its origin is caused by the endeavour for the same through virtuous activities. All the activities are aimed at the acquisition of happiness which is its purpose.

Bharadvaja said:

89. It has been said by you that pleasures have the greatest status.

90. We do not accept this. Nor is it so in the case of sages who establish themselves in the Supreme.

91. This desirable special quality cannot be attained. They do not practise this. It is reported that Lord Brahma, the creator of the three worlds, stands alone in austerity. He is a celibate. He does not entangle himself in erotic pleasure.

92. Moreover, Lord Vishvešhvara, husband of Uma, controlled Kama who attacked him by reducing him to bodilessness.

93-94 Hence, this is not accepted by noble-souled ones.27 Nor am I convinced of this by you. It has been stated by you that women constitute the highest, ultimate happiness.28 It is only a popular saying in the world. There are two types of benefit (or result). Happiness results from good deeds and misery otherwise.

27. V.93 in the NP is obscure: The Mbh, original is tasmäd brūmo na tu mahatmabhir ayam pratigruhito na tvesham tåvad vishishto guna-višheşha iti / Bhäradvāja objects: Hence we affirm that happiness is not acceptable to highsouled people. Nor does it appear to be a high attribute of the soul. 

28. The text of the NP: bhavata tüktam sukhanām paramah striyah is strange as Bhrugu in his speech made no reference to women as the ultimate happiness.’ The Mbh. original is: bhagavata tuktam sukhanna param astiti / '(I cannot believe in) what your worship stated. viz. there is nothing higher than happiness.’

Bhrugu said:

95. Here it is being (thus) explained. Darkness (Tamoguna) has manifested itself from Anrta (falsehood). Those who are prevailed upon by darkness pursue only Adharma and not Dharma. Those who have been affected by anger, covetousness, delusion, violence, falsehood and similar vicious things do not attain happiness either in this world or in the other one. They are shattered and scattered through various kinds of sickness, pain and oppressions. They are afflicted by various distressing features such as capital punishment, imprisonment and tortures; they are overwhelmed by the distress and strain of hunger, thirst and tedium; they are subjected to various miseries of physical strain due to rain, gusts of wind, oppressing heat and biting cold; they are afflicted by various mental miseries caused by the death of or separation from kins men or the destruction of wealth; they are also dejected due to other causes such as old age, death, etc.

96. In the heaven there is neither physical nor mental pain; there is no old age or sin; it is always pleasure alone there; but here (in this world) both pleasure and pain are experienced.

97. They say that there is only misery in the hell, that the highest region (of the Lord) has pure happiness. The earth is the mother of all living beings; women are also of the same nature.

98-99. The male is lord of the progeny (begetter). They know that the semen virile is of the fiery element. Hence, he is the creator of the worlds of Dharma, of good conduct,29 of well-performed penance, of self-study of the Vedas) and of the performance of Homa. The sin is subdued through the sacrificial rites. There is excellent tranquility in the self-study of the Vedas.

29. Here (at the end of v.98), ch. 190 in the Mbh. Shanti ends. The NP, however, combines Mbh. Shanti 191. 1b and 2a in one verse, viz, 99 and this odd combination of Mbh. 2b and 3a into verse 100 etc. is carried on in the NP. I have, however, followed the text of the NP in translation.

100. They say that enjoyment of pleasures is due to charitable gifts; and that one shall attain heavenly pleasures through penance. They say that Dana (charitable gift) is of two types; that for the purpose of benefit here and that for the purpose of benefit in the other world.

101. Whatever is given to the good men is conducive to the pleasures in the other world; whatever is given as charitable gift to bad men is conducive to the pleasures in this world only. The benefit enjoyed (from charitable gifts) is in accordance with charitable gift offered.

Bharadvaja enquired:

102. What is performance of holy rites? Who performs them? What are the characteristics of Dharma? Of how many types is Dharma? It behoves you to explain it.

Bhrugu said:

103. The acquisition of the benefit of heavenly pleasures is only unto those learned men who are engrossed in carrying out their prescribed religious duties. He who is otherwise becomes deluded.

Bharadvaja submitted:

104. It behoves you to explain to me here the respective conventional duties of the four stages of life ordained formerly by Brahmanical sages.30

30. The reading brahmarşhi vihitäm pură, though a faithful copy of the Mbh. (ibid) v. 7 is contradicted by Bhrugu's reply: pūrvam eva bhagavata Brahmana and Not brahmarshina. The original reading in the Mbh. v. 7 should have been Brahmana vihitam in view of consistency. That god Brahma is the original Law-giver or ordainer of order is known to all.

Bhrugu said:

105. Four Ashramas (stages of life) have been specified for the preservation of Dharma, even at the very outset, by Lord Brahma who used to carry out what is beneficial to the worlds

106. They mention that the residence in the house of the preceptor is the first Ashrama. The boy in this stage of life, properly controls his self by means of purificatory rites, consecratory rites, observances and holy vows. He performs the worship of the sun, the fire and the deities during the two Sandhyas (The Dawn and Dusk). He eschews all lethargy. He purifies his inner soul by means of obeisance to the preceptor, performance of the Vedic Studies and listening to (good discourses). He takes his holy ablution thrice every day. He regularly practises celibacy, maintenance of holy sacrificial fires, service to the preceptor, begging for alms, etc.; he dedicates the alms so collected to his teacher) and other activities to the inner soul. He abides by the words of the preceptor. He obediently carries out the behests of the preceptor. (He does not say anything against the preceptor.) He should be devoted to the study of the Vedas which he acquires, thanks to the grace of his preceptor. In this connection there is a Verse: -

107. If any Brahmana propitiates the preceptor and acquires the Vedas, he attains the benefit of residence in the heaven (and heavenly pleasures). All his mental desires will be accomplished.

They say that the second Ashrama is Garhasthya (householder ship).

108. We shall elucidate the characteristics of the conventional duties followed by the good of that period. The Ashrama of the householder is laid down in regard to those who practise good conduct, who have performed Samvartana rites (conclusion of study and returned home) and who seek the bene fits of joint-performance of holy rites.

 109. In this stage (the aim) is the acquisition of Dharma, wealth and love. In view of the acquisition of the Trivarga (i.e., the above-mentioned three aims) he should earn wealth through non-despicable means. A householder should lead his particular stage of life by means of wealth earned by any of these means. He may earn wealth as a result of his pre-eminence achieved through recitation of the Vedas. Or he may earn wealth by means of any method open to a Brahminical sage. He may take wealth from the sea. He may take wealth acquired by good luck or by practice of observances.

110. They cite this stage as the root (support) of all stages (of life). The residents of the abode of the preceptor (i.e., Brahmanas of religious students), Parivräjakas i.e., Recluses and others such as those who observe the performance of holy rites and vows are also benefited through the house-holders through the alms given or oblations shared.31

31. bhiksha-bali-samvibhagah: NK explains: bhiksha (alms-giving) is to atithis, bali is the food offered on the ground, and Samvibhaga is the division of one's property among one's sons.

111. The householders render service to the Vänaprasthas (the forest-dwelling hermits) also generally by supplying them the articles (they require). Hence, these good men generally travel over the earth with the intention of visiting holy centres and sacred rivers. They continue their Svadhyaya (self-study) also, While travelling, they take with them the wholesome cooked food they may require on the way.

112. The householders greet and welcome them. Without envy or jealousy, they speak to them welcoming words. They offer them good seats and beds. They are hospitable to them and give them food to eat and render other good services.

113. In this context there is a verse. If any guest becomes disappointed and returns from anyone's house, he gives the house-owner all the sins and lakes away his merits.

114. Through the performance of sacrifices and other rites (by a householder) the deities are pleased; the Pitris are pleased by the oblations and libations offered; the sages are pleased, thanks to the repeated recitations, listening and memorising of the Vidyā (Vedic passages, etc.) and god Prajapati is pleased, thanks to the procreation of children.

115-116. In this context there are two verses. (Defective) (The Householders) entertain affection to all living beings like the ears and the speech unto the Vāyu32 (?). The following are despicable (in a householder: Harassing (others), obstructing (others), using harsh words, disrespecting people, arrogance and egotism. The following is a penance common to all Ashramas, viz. nonviolence, truthfulness and absence of anger.

32. The obscurity in the meaning of these verses is due to the misprints in the text of the NP. The translation is an attempt to interpret rationally the printed text of the NP. The original of the NP verse in Mbh. (ibid) v. 14 is as follows: 

Vatsalyat sarvabhütebhyo vachyah shrotra-sukha girah |

paritāpopaghatashcha parushyam chătra garhitam ||

“A person following Grhastha-dharma should speak to all creatures words full of affection and agreeable to the ears. It is censurable to give pain or inflict humiliation or mortification and harsh words.”

 117. Again in the householder's life, one has the good fortune of having garlands, ornaments, good robes, oil bath, enjoyment, etc. every day; they can witness dances, they can hear and enjoy songs and instrumental music; they can have many things pleasing to the ears and cooling to the eyes; they can see beautiful women, they can enjoy the five varieties of food-stuffs, viz. Bhakshya (that which is chewed and taken in), Bhojya (that which is swallowed), Lehya (lambatives), Peya (beverages) and Cuoshya (articles of food squeezed and taken).

118. The householders can have the satisfaction of playing about as they please; they can attain erotic pleasures. He who can perpetually accomplish Trivargas (three aims in life) in the Asrama of a householder experiences all pleasures here and attains the goal of the elegent and virtuous men.33

33. Here ends ch. 191 of the Mbh. Shanti.

119. If a householder maintains himself by gleaning, if he is engaged in performing his duties and if he has eschewed all enterprises leading to erotic pleasures-it is not difficult for him to attain heaven.

120. The Vanaprasthas too (Forest-dwelling hermits) pursue their virtuous activities. They visit holy centres, sacred rivers and cascades of water. In the forest full of deer, boars, buffaloes, tigers and wild elephants, they perform their austerities. They move about in those forests.

121-122. They have eschewed all dress and raiments, foodstuffs and mode of behaviour (suited to their former village life); their diet is confined to the medicinal herbs, fruits, roots and leaves; their food-intake is limited and restricted and consists of various products of the forest. They seat themselves on bare ground. They lie down on the earth, stone, sand, gravels or ashes; they cover their nakedness by means of Kusha grass, hides or bark garments; they grow their hair, beard and moustaches as well as their nails; they take their ablutions (regularly) at the specified time; At the time prescribed for the performance of Homa they offer dry oblations; they take rest after sweeping the earlier offerings of sacrificial twigs, Kusha grass, flowers, etc; their skins are cracked everywhere due to the exposure to chill or hot winds; their blood and flesh are dried up due to the performance of diverse vowed observances, Yogic activities34 and they appear to have only skin and bones, yet they keep up their fortitude. By means of their inherent strength they uphold their bodies.

34. NK explains niyama-vowed observance such as sitting with fire on four sides under the sun (pañçhágnisådhana), carya-activities such as pilgrimage to sacred places.

122. He who regularly maintains these rites ordained by the Brahminical sages shall, like fire, burn all his defects and conquer all invincible worlds.

 123. I shall reiterate the conventional prescribed duties of the Parivräjakas (recluses). They eschew the sacrificial fires. They leave off wealth, property, wives and all attachment to worldly affairs. They take off their affectionate ties and renounce (everything) and become recluses. They view a lump of clay or a piece of gold or a stone equally; their attention is not diverted to those who are engaged in realising the three-fold aims of life.

124. They observe enemies, friends and neutrals equally and impartially; they refrain from injuring either physically or mentally or verbally any type of living being whether an immobile, or a mammal, or a bird or a sweat-born insect; they do not have any fixed abode; they move about on the mountains, river banks, shades of trees and temples; they may go to cities or villages for temporary stay;35 they never indulge in violence, anger, pride, greed, delusion, miserliness, arrogance, slandering or false prestige. 

35. The NP has omitted the restriction on the duration of a stay in a town or a village. The Mbh. limits it to five nights (pancha-ratrika) in a big locality and one night in a village.

In this context there are three verses: 

125-127. The contemplative sage (muni) who moves about as a muni (silent recluse) after granting freedom from fear to all living beings need not be afraid of any living being at any place. The recluse performs the Agnihotra in his own body; it is through his mouth that he consigns the Havish-offerings obtained through begging for alms to propitiate the bodily fire. The Brahmana attains the other worlds through the fire of the funeral pyre. He who performs the duties of the Mokşhashrama (Sannyasa) as mentioned, should remain pure and keep his intellect properly conceived, As a fire that has no supply of fuel becomes calm, that Brahmana goes to the Brahmaloka.