6 - The Glory of the Ganga 

The Ganga 

The holiest of the rivers in India. It is eulogized since Vedic times (e.g., RV, 10.75.5, Tait. Ar. 10.1.13, Mahånarayana Up. 5.4) The Mbh & VR are full of semi-historical legends about it e.g., Ganga’s marriage with king Shantanu (Mbh. adi. chs 96 to 98). King Bhagiratha’s success in bringing down the Ganga on the earth (Mbh. Vana. chs 108, 109, VR. Bala cantos 43, 44 Bd.cb.97) seems to be a saga of the attempts of 3 generations of kings of Ayodhya to irrigate the parched plains of the U.P. in their kingdom. During the course of flowing, the river was swallowed up and allowed to flow by king Jahnu, and hence it came to be known as his daughter Jahnavi. This is an allegorical description of the major changes in the course of the river. There are six Jahnu-ashramas, e.g., 1st, at Bhairavaghati near Gangotri at the c fluence of the Bhagirathi and the Jahnavi; the 2nd at Kanauj, the last being at Jamnagar 4 miles to the West of Nadia (De-GDAMI 61-62). The description of the descent of the Ganga (Bh.P.5.17.2-9 & Mbh Bhisma 6.88-50) is a traditional memory of the land which the Indo-Aryans left behind in some ancient past, where from ‘mount Meru’ (prob. Pamirs), big rivers like the Sitå, the Alakananda, the Chakshu and the Bhadra flowed in four directions. Geographers have now identified them and have shown that there is much truth in the racial memory couched in poetical terms in Puranas (vide N.L. De GDAMI under respective heads; also D. P. Misra-Proto-history of India). 

The Ganga came to be regarded so holy unanimously, due to the purity of its water, which does not deteriorate even after long storage. The scientists and engineers of the Roorkee university have experimentally shown that this is due to the presence of (1) radio-active-minerals, (2) bacteriophages and (3) metallic compounds in the river-bed which possess bacteri-cidal properties (The Sunday Standard, Bombay dt. 26-9-76, p.8). The ancient Hindus dis covered this undeteriorating quality of the Ganga water by their experience, and it has been the practice in many homes to keep vases or container of the Ganga water for daily worship, and to use it to purify a dying person of sins, by pouring some drops of Ganga-water in his mouth. This purity led to the belief that not only bath in the Ganga or drinking a few drops of its water, but even remembering the name of the river had sanctifying influence. Most of the Puranas contain some verses or chapters on the glorification of Ganga or Ganga-mahatmya. As expected, some verses are common to many Gangå-mähåtmyas.

Suta said: 

1. On hearing the glorification of devotion unto the Lord, Narada was pleased, and he again asked Sanaka, the master of spiritual knowledge and philosophy.

Narada said: 

2. O Master of interpreting scriptural precepts! Kindly tell me the truth as to what is the excellent-most of all the places of pilgrimage and the sacred-most of all sacred spots.

Sanaka replied: 

3. O Brahmana! Listen to this utmost secret which bestows all riches and which is the holy thing that destroys the effects of evil dreams, and the auspicious thing that is conducive to virtue and destructive of sins. 

4. This should be listened to even by sages. It for-ever wards off the influence of evil planets, subdues all ailments and causes longevity. 

5. Great sages say that the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna² is the most excellent of all sacred spots, and the most sacred of all holy places. 

6. All divinities headed by god Brahma, all sages and all Manus, desirous of acquiring merits, resort to this sacred confluence of waters, with dark and white hues. 

7. The Ganga should be known as a merit-giving holy ‘river since it has its source from the feet of Vishnu, O brahmana, and the Yamuna² is born of the Sun. Hence their confluence is bound to be very auspicious.

2. Yamuna of Kalindi 

Next to the Ganga, the Yamuna is regarded as the No. 2 holy river in India. It is mentioned along with the Ganga since-Vedic Times (vide Ganga above). It is regarded as the daughter of the-Sun-god and Yama’s sister (Devil, ch. 45). It rises in Kalinda-giri (a portion of the ‘bandara-puccha-mountain, De-GDAMI, p. 215), and hence is called Kålindi. The comparatively dark colour of its waters is attributed to the bath of god Shiva who, after the death of his first wife Sati, was in an excited mood, in which condition, being shot at by Kamadeva (Cupid), became intolerably troubled and jumped into the Yamuna to extinguish the fire of his agony, changing the colour of its water to darkness (Vamana P. ch. 6). The association of Krishna’s lilas (sports) on its banks, and his rasa lila with gopis (which some believe continues unending), has immortalised the river in the hearts of Indians. It, being a very sacred river since the Vedic times, kings like Ambarisha, Bharata, Shantanu performed sacrifices on its bank (Mbh, vana chs 90, 129, 162; Drona 68.8). Its confluence with the Ganga at Prayaga (Allahabad) made it a highly sacred place to Hindus.

8. O Sage, the Ganga is the most distinguished of all rivers. When remembered, it destroys the distress and absolves the rememberers of all sins and removes all harms and injuries. 

9. O great sage! The holy place called Prayaga³ should be known as the sacred-most, and the most meritorious of all the holy spots on the earth, delimited by the oceans. 

3. Prayaga. 

Modern Allahabad. A very sacred place due to the confluence of the two holiest rivers—the Ganga and the Yamuna. The Sarasvati is supposed to join this confluence and hence it is called triveni-sangama. According to Mbh, at Prayaga deities right from Brahma, guardians of the world and the cardinal points (Lokapala, Dikpäla), pitrus (manes) great sages, Nagas and even god Mahavishnu are present here. If one bathes at the triveni confluence one gets the merit of performing the horse-sacrifice and the Rajasuya together. (Vana 85.70-86). 

Pururavas, the son of Ila, probably the leader of the earliest Indo-Aryan colonizers from Ilavarta selected this then strategically important site and established his capital here. It was then called Pratishthana-a permanent settlement. Here Nahusha, Yayati, Puru, Dushyanta and Bharata reigned (Brahma P. Chs 10-12). This place is now called Jhusi, and is a part of the precincts of Prayaga. This sacred place is highly praised in Pd.P. Svarga khanda, chs 41,42,43. Km P. regards this as “the most blessed, heaven-giving, auspicious, meritorious and sanctifying” of all sacred places (1.38.12), and recommends that death at Prayaga leads to the highest region (Ibid. V.5). There is the celebrated Akshaya Vata (undecaying banyan tree) in the fort which Akbar built in 1581 A.D. on the ruins of a Hindu fort. Pd.P. Svarga 43.11 recommends death at the foot of this tree. According to Hiuen Tsiang, people used to end their life at this banyan tree for attaining heaven. The Khairha plate of Yashah-Karnadeva (1073 A.D.) records that king Gängeya obtained release along with his 100 wives at the famous banyan tree of Prayaga. 

Prapte prayaga-vata-mülanivesha-bandhau

Särdham shatena gruhinibhir amutra muktim

Ep. Indi. XII. 205 p.211.

Prayaga still holds powerful influence on all religious minded Hindus.

10. It was here that god Brahma performed a sacrifice to propitiate the Lord of the goddess Lakshmi. All sages also similarly perform different sacrifices for him. 

11. The meritorious ablutions in all other sacred waters (taken together) do not deserve to be even a fraction, one sixteenth of the merits accrued from the ablution with a drop of water of the Ganga. 

12. Even a man staying a hundred yojanas away from the Ganga and uttering repeatedly the name of Ganga, is also released from all sins. What then of a person who actually performs ablution in the water of the Ganga? 

13. The goddess (viz. the holy river Ganga) originating from Vishnu’s feet and held over the head respectfully by the Lord of the Universe (viz. Śiva), deserves to be resorted to by sages and gods. What need be said that it should be resorted to by hapless human beings? 

14. If the sand of the Ganga is applied on the forehead by excellent persons, it should be known that a brilliant (third) eye⁴ will be developed there beneath a crescent moon (the devotee will have a similarity of form like god Shiva). 

4. The eye on the forehead 

The identification of Rudra and Fire--Sacrificial fire in later Vedic times, seems to have transferred The Kapalāgni, fire on the circular earthen plate for baking Purodash which is kept near the yajna-kunda, to the Kapala (for head of shiva as Kapala means both ‘earthen plate’ and ‘a forehead’. But according to Puranas, God Shiva has three eyes, the two normal eyes are the sun and the moon, and the third eye is the Fire-god. He opens it only to destroy the enemy (like Kamadeva) or the universe. Although popular belief attributes the opening of the third eye of fire due to the playful shutting of his two eyes by his divine consort Parvati. Mbh. Anu, 140.33-38 attributes the fire to Narayana which after burning (a part of) the Himalaya subsided and submitted itself at Krishna’s feet. In NP. this reference is to glorify the efficacy of the application of the sand of the Ganga to one’s forehead as it gives the applier sarupya (similarity of form) like god Shiva.

15. Bath taken into the Ganga is highly meritorious. It is difficult to have it even to the resident of celestial regions. It bestows the Sarupya⁵ (similarity in form) with Vishnu. What more can be said to be greater than this? 

5. Sarupya 

This is a type or state of Liberation in which the liberated soul has the appearance or form like the deity. The Bh.P. enumerates five such types as follows: 

sarshti-sårupya-sålokya-såmipyaikatvam apyuta |

Out of these, salokata-residence in the same region of the Deity (e.g., Vaikuntha, Kailasa), samipata-Being in the proximity of the Deity, sarüpata or sarupya--as above, sayujyata—Intimate union or absorption into the Deity, särshtita or sarshtya is the last stage consisting of equality with the Supreme Being in power and all the divine attributes of the Deity.

16. Even sinners taking their bath there in the Ganga become absolved of all their sins. Seated in a great aerial car, they proceed ahead to the highest region (Vaikuntha).⁶ 

6. Vaikuntha 

The region of Mahavishnu (Bh. P.9.4.60). The Vedic seers regarded Vishnu’s place as supreme and glowing like an extensive ‘eye’ in heaven (RV. 1.22.20) and contains the eternal source of honey (RV.1.154.5). Its location was high up in the sky. The Bh.P. thinks that it is beyond the three worlds, and is endowed with innate splendour. It has elaborated and remodelled earlier ideas about the abode of Vishnu. The Vaikuntha dhaman is the highest region of Vishnu endowed with an outer garden called-Naihshreyas. It is liberation incarnate and has the privilege of simultaneous revelry of all the six seasons bursting upon the wish-yielding tree. It abounds in singing birds, golden chariots, women with explosive beauty and captivating smiles yet evoking no baser passions, etc. (Bh.P.3.15. 16-22 also vide 2.9. 10-17). Later puranas like Pd.P. Svarga khanda regarded it as situated on a higher plane than the region of Brahma and is 18 crore yojanas (= 144 crores of miles) far above the earth. 

bhūr-lokat-parisankhyātaḥ kotir ashtådasha prabho |

(vide Shabda-kalpa-druma IV.p.507). It is called Vaikuntha as it is a stage of existence free from worldly limitations (kuntha).

17. By taking their bath therein (in the Ganga), noble souled persons redeem thousands of members on the sides of their father’s family and mother’s family, and go to the region of Vishnu. 

18. O Brahmana! There is no doubt in this that he who remembers the Ganga attains the merit of performing ablutions in all the sacred waters and staying in all the holy places. 

19. By the sight of a person who has taken a bath in the Ganga, even a sinner attains to the celestial world. One should become over-Lord of gods merely by touching my body (i.e., the waters of the Ganga). 

20. The mud and dust from the root of the Tulasi plant, the foot of a Brahmana or from the bed of the river Ganga confers upon people assimilation type of mukti-sårupyata- (similarity of form) with Achyuta. 

21. Extremely rare indeed are the following: viz. the Ganga, the Tulasi plant, unflinching devotion to Hari and devoted attachment to the expounder of the Dharmas, (among the people). 

22. A man endowed with devotion, who applies over his head the dust from the feet of the expounder of the sacred dharmas, or the dust and mud taken from the bed of the Ganga, or from the root of the Tulasi plant, attains Vishnu’s region. 

23. He who ardently desires and yearns, “When shall I go to the Ganga? When shall I see that river?”, goes to the region of Vishnu. 

24. It is not possible even for Vishnu to describe adequately the greatness of the Ganga even in hundreds of years. Of what use is a garrulous talk by others, O Brahmana? 

25. It is exceedingly surprising that the Maya deludes the entire universe, and that people do fall into the hell, despite the existence of the name of the Ganga. 

26. The name of the Ganga is glorified as one that dispels the misery of the worldly existence. Similarly renowned is the plant Tulasi and devotion to the expounder of Hari’s glory. 

27. He who mentions, even for once, the two syllables Gangå, becomes completely liberated from all sins, and goes to the region of Vishnu. 

28. He who goes within three yojanas (one yojana = 12.8 km) of the Ganga, becomes absolved from all sins, and attains to the region of the Sun. 

29. The river Ganga is highly meritorious. If resorted to, with great devotion, when the Sun is in Mesha (the sign Aries of the Zodiac) and Tula (Libra, the 7th sign of the zodiac as well as in the month of Mrugashirsha, it sanctifies the entire universe. 

30-31. There are many holy rivers, viz. the Godavari,⁷ the Bhimarathi,⁸ the Krishņā,⁹ the Reva,¹⁰ the Sarasvati,¹¹ Tungabhadra¹² the Kaveri,¹³ the Kalindi,¹⁴ the Bahuda,¹⁵ the Vetravatī,¹⁶ the Tämraparņi,¹⁷ the Sarayu,¹⁸ etc. Among all these rivers, the Ganga is remembered (in Smruti works) as the holiest of all, O excellent brahmana.

7. The Godavari 

Also called the Gautami, as the sage Gautama brought down the Ganga to redeem him from cow-slaughter. It rises in Nasik district near a village, Tryambak, famous for the jyotir-linga “Tryambakeshvara’. Rama, along with his consort Sitå and Lakshmana, is said to have stayed for the most part of their exile at Panchavati near Nasik (Mbh. Vana 277.41 also VR. Aranya Kanda). Every twelfth year, when the planet Jupiter is in the Leo sign of the Zodiac, thousands of pilgrims from all parts of India flock to bathe in the Godavari near Trymbak and Nasik. It flows through Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh and falls into the Bay of Bengal near Rajamahendri. 

The Mbh. regards it as one of the holiest rivers in India and bath in it confers the fruit of go-medha and life in the region of Vasuki (Mbh. Vana 85.33, 88.2), and bath in the Godavari at Janasthana (Nasik) bestows one with royal fortune (Mbh. Anu 25.29).

8. The Bhimarathi 

Also called Bhimaratha and Bhima: The Mbh regards it as one of the holiest rivers in India which absolves one of all sins (Vana 88.3 Bhishma 9.20). It rises near Bhimashankara, one of the twelve jyotir-lingas, in the Western Ghats, in Poona District and joins the Krishna near Raychur. The famous Vaishnavite centre Pandharpur and the sacred shrine of Vitthala is on the bank of the Bhimarathi which, due to its crescent shape there, is called Chandrabhāgā. Balarama had visited this place during his pilgrimage (Bh.P. 10.79.12).

9. The Krishna 

The river is mentioned in the Mbh. Bhishma 9.33, Bh.P. 5.19.18, VR. Kishkindha 4). It rises at Mahabaleshvara in Western Ghats in Satara district, flows through Maharashtra, Karnatak and Andhra Pradesha and falls into the Bay of Bengal at Sippelar near Masulipatam (De-GDAMI, p. 104). In puranas it is always associated with the Vena, Venna, Veņņi, or the Venvä and the Mbh. Vana 85.37-38 states that bath at the devahrada (prob. confluence) of the Krishna and Venna confers the memory of one’s previous births, 

D.C. Sircar is not correct when he says, “The Venvä is the modern Varna running between the Satara and Kolhapur districts GAMI. (Studies in The Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 59). 

Apart from the name of Satara dist. instead of that of Sangli for the location of the Varna, the main fact remains that there is a river called the Venna in Satara district-a sister of the Krishna as its source is the same—which joins the Krishna in Satara district. 

The late Prof. Dr. (Mrs.) Irawati Karve, from the Deccan College, Poona, told me that on sociological grounds the Kanhan and the Benna from Vidarbha have a better claim to be ancient Krishna and Venna, as the culture of the people in the present Krishna--Venna valley is pro-Dravidian, and the derivation Kanhan<Krishna and Benna<Venna is quite plausible. 

10. The Reva

So called because of the roaring sound created by its current while breaking its way through the Amarkantaka mountain. 

bhitva shailam cha vipulam prayātyevam maharnavam | bhramayanti dishaḥ sarva ravena mahata purā ||

plavayanti virājanti tena Revā iti smruta |

-Sk.P. V. Reva khanda 6.37-38 

In fact, the major part of the Reva khanda naturally glorifies the Reva or Nar mada. The Bh.P. distinguishes between the Reva and the Narmada (Bh.P. 5.19.18). Sk.P. (1.1.31.103, V.1.56.6 and 1.1.18.153) reconciles this by stating that though the Reva and the Narmada were originally different, they joined together and formed the Southern Ganga. It forms the traditional boundary between the North and South India (Bh.P. 5.19.18). It rises in the Amarkantak hills and falls into the Gulf of Cambay near Broach. Maheshwar (ancient Mahishmati of king Sahasrarjuna, a Jyotir-linga, Omkara Mandhata, are on its bank. It is regarded as highly meritorious to go round the course of this river. Pd.P.Svarga.chs 17-22. glorify the Narmada. Balarama visited this river during his pilgrimage (Bh.P. 10.79.21). 

11. The Sarasvati 

Though now practically non-existent in its pristine glory, the Sarasvati is a very famous river from the Vedic times and is mentioned in RV. 6.61, 7.95.1-2, 10.17.7-9. From RV.7.95.1-2, it appears to be a mighty river flowing to the Arabian sea. It rises in the Sirmur hills of the Siwalik range in the Himalayas. The fountain the source of the river-was at the foot of a Plaksha (Indian fig.) tree, and it became known as Plakshavataraņa or Plaksha-prasravana, now a place of pilgrimage. It emerges into the plain at Ad-Badri in the Ambala District. It disappears at Chalaur, but reappears at Bhavani pura; then it disappears at Balchappar, but again appears at Bara Khera. It is later joined by the Märkanda at Urnali near Pehoa and the joint stream under the name Sarasvati falls into the Ghaggar which is believed to have the name Sarasvati in ancient times. 

Vedic seers prayed the river for glorious treasures, and milk, and wished to stay on her banks for ever. The Atharva veda describes Maruts ploughing barley on its banks. The spread of Aryan culture from the land of the Sarasvati to Kosala is symbolically described in the Shatapatha I.4.1.10 ff. as the carrying of sacrificial fire by Videgha Mathava to the east. The Mbh. and the puranas speak of its disappearance at Vinashana-tirtha near Sirsa. It is associated with sages Dadhicha (Mbh. Vana 100.13,) Vasishtha (Shalya 42.29) and Vyasa (Bh.P. I.1.4.15.4-15). Sacrifices were performed on its banks by kings like Matinára (Adi 95.26-27), Yayati, Nahusha, Puru and later by Krishna. Vidura and Balarama visited it as pilgrims (Bh.P. 3-1.22 & 10.78.18). After the death of Krishna, his 16000 wives drowned themselves to death in the Sarasvati (Mbh. Svarga 5.25). The archaeological explorations of the Sarasvati-Ghaggar--Hakra bed proved that the Vedic and epic tradition about the Sarasvati being once a mighty river with a continuous and perennial flow down to the Arabian Sea, is correct. According to the evidence available, the river dried up due to serious seismic disturbances towards the end of the Vedic period. The hydrographical and archaeological investigations by Suraj Bhan have shown that in the late Harappan times, the desiccation of the river had already started resulting in the shifting of her settlements to the upper valley (The Sunday Standard, Bombay 19-9-76). Hence the fervent prayers in Vedas not to deprive the seer of its water. Puranic stories of Sarasvati carrying Vadavånala to the sea, and her disappearance through the fear of being touched by Abhiras and other wild tribes. 

The rejuvenation of the Sarasvati by diverting surplus waters of the Yamuna, Rakhi and other rivers would transform the desert of Rajasthan into a granary of India.

12. The Tungabhadra 

A tributary of the Krishna. It is due to the confluence of two rivers, the Tunga and the Bhadra (at Kudali in Shimoga dist., Karnatak) that the river came to be called Tungabhadra. It joins the Krishna beyond Curnool. The ancient Kishkindha of Sugriva was situated on its bank. It is also called Tungaveni (Mbh. Bhishma 9.27) and is a very holy river (Bh.P.5.19.18).

13. The Kaveri 

One of the holiest rivers in India. It rises from a fountain Chandra Tirtha (KP.2.37) in the Brahmagiri mountain in Coorg. Famous sacred places like Shrirangam, Trichanapalli and Kumbhakonam are on its banks. The Kaveri falls at Shiva samudra are famous for natural beauty. According to Sk.P. God Shiva gave this river to sage Agastya who carried it in his Kamandalu (a water bowl of gourd), and while Agastya was deep in meditation at Brahmagiri, Ganapati, at the request of Indra, upset the bowl and secured the river for the parched region of South India. (Mentioned as a very holy river in Mbh. Vana 85.12 and Bh.P. 5.19.18). 

14. The Kalindi 

Vide Yamuna, above, Note No. 2.

15. The Bahuda 

Modern scholars differ on its identification. Pargiter identifies it with the Råmagangā which joins the Ganga near Kanauj (His. MK.P.ch. 57). De regards it as Dhavalā (modern Dhumelā or Budhi Rapti) a tributary of the Rapti (GDAMI, p.16). The sage Likhita got his arm restored by bathing in this river; hence it is called arm-giver or Bahuda (Mbh. Shanti.23.39-40). Gauri, wife of king Prasenajit was cursed by her husband and was transformed into a river called Bahuda. Observance of fast and celibacy for one night on this river confers a godhood in heaven (Mbh. Vana 84.67-68; 95.4).

16. The Vetravati 

Modern Betwa, a tributary of the Yamuna. A river of all India importance (Mbh. Bhishma 16-19).

17. The Tamraparni. 

Also, the Tämraparņi, Tämbravari. It rises in the Agastya-kūta mountain, and joins the gulf of Manar celebrated for pearlfishery. Pandyan king Malayadhvaja stayed after retirement from kingship here (Bh.P. 4.28.35, 5.19.18).

18. The Sarayu 

The Ghagra or Gogra in Oudh on which Ayodhya was situated. The river rises in Kumaun and after its confluence with the Káli-nadi, it is called the Sharayu or ‘Ghagra’. According to Mbh, it is one of the seven streams of the Ganga (Adi 169.20-21). Vasishtha brought it to the Manasa lake whence it dashed forth as the Sarayu from that lake (Aru. 155.23-24). From a Tirtha called Gopratara in Sarayu, Rama along with all his followers, went to His highest abode. Mere remembrance of the river sanctifies a person (Anu. 165.21).

32. Just as the Omnipresent Vishnu stays, by pervading the whole of the universe, similarly, the Ganga is all-pervading and destroys all sins. 

33. The Ganga is as if a nurse unto the universe. It sanctifies the world when bathed in it, or when its waters are drunk. Thus, it is Pavani (purifier). What a pity, that it is not resorted to by men! 

34. Vārāṇasi¹⁹ is well-known as the holiest of all holy centres, and the sacred-most of all sacred spots. It is resorted to by all Devas. 

19. Varanasi 

Also known as Kashi, Avimukta-kshetra, Mahashmasana, Rudra-kshetra or Anandavana in Puranas. 

It is the holiest town in India where two great religions Hinduism (Brahmanism) and Buddhism flourished. Originally Varanasi was the capital of the ancient State (Janapada) Kashi and is so mentioned in the Mahāgovinda Suttanta in Digha Nikaya II.235 (also vide the Anguttara Nikiya (I.213, IV. 252, 256) and the Bhagavati- XV. Uddesa I) The name is derived from the river-names the Varuna (Varana) and Asi which join there, and the myth of one king Banår giving his name to Benares is an instance of popular etymology. Kåshis the early Aryan settlers, selected this then strategically important site, due to the protection afforded by the rivers the Ganga, the Varuna and the Asi against the hostile aboriginals, and an all the year-round safe route of communications with the Aryan colonics to their West. Havel in his Benares, the sacred city states that Varanasi might have been the centre of primitive Sun-worship, and Brahmanas glorified it in all their puranas and the Skandha purana devoted one full book (Part IV) as Kasi khanda for describing all the sacred places and legends connected with Kashi. The Buddha selected Varanasi for his 1 st sermon-’setting the wheel of dharma in motion’, and the Ashokan Stupa at Saranatha commemorates the site of the 1 st sermon of the Buddha. Pårshvanåtha, the historical founder of Jainism belonged to Varanasi. This glory of Varanasi attracted Muslim invasions which razed to the ground its ancient glory. It, however, continued to be the centre of learning despite political and religious troubles, and great saints like Chaitanya, Råmånanda, Vallabha, Kabir, Ekanāth, Tulasidas visited the place and settled there for some part of their life and some permanently. In the 18th century, the Marathas who controlled the Moghul rulers of Delhi, used their influence in the rebuilding of ancient shrines and religious institutions thereof, and the present temple of Visvanatha was built by Rani Ahilya Bai of Indore in 1777. It is hoped that Varanasi may regain its ancient glory in the post-independence period.

35. Only those two persons are intelligent: learned and well informed, and the men of Vedic learning by whom the word Kashi²⁰ is frequently heard. 

20. Kashi 

Though Kashi is identified with Varanasi here, it is originally the name of a state (Janapada) colonised by an Indo-Aryan tribe Kåshis. Kashi as a Jana pada is recorded in Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain sources as mentioned above. The Kasi clan of Aryans seems to be allied with the Kassites who conquered Babylon in 1700 B.C., even though the Aryanisation of the region called Kashi was at a later Vedic period. Kashi (and its joint name Kast-Kosala) often occurs in the Brahmana period. It was an independent state at the time of the Buddha, but soon after submitted to and formed a part of the empire of Magadha. As noted above Varanasi was its capital but today both are the parts of the same city-complex. The author of Skandapuräna is conscious of the bigger geographical extent of Kashi and calls that section of Skanda Purana as Kashi-khanda and not Varanasi-mahatmya or some such name. Now, most of us regard Kashi and Varanasi as identical.

36. O excellent Brahmana! Those who remember the sacred place Avimukta²¹ (i.e., Kashi) shake off all their sins, and proceed to the region of god Shiva. 

21. Avimukta 

As per SKP. IV. (Kashikhanda) i.39.71-78 God Shiva manifested himself here and did not leave the place and that the sight of the linga confers complete liberation from Samsara. Hence, the significance of the name avimuktaka.

37. A man, even if standing at a distance of hundred yojanas from it, remembers the holy place avimukta, attains to the region of no ailment i.e., Moksha, although he may be full of many sins. 

38. O Brahmana! If at the time of breathing his last, a person remembers avimukta (at the last moment), he is released from sins and goes to the region of god Shiva. 

39. The person enjoys the merits resulting from remembering Kashi, in the heaven. At the end of that period, he is born as the sole emperor of the earth, and then after going to Kashi, he attains salvation. 

40. What need there is of a long exposition regarding the merits of Varanasi? The fulfilment of the four-fold aims of human life (Purusharthas) is not far from those who at least take the name of Kashi. 

41. The confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna is superior even to Kashi, O Brahmana. For, merely by having a look at it, men reach the highest goal (Liberation). 

42. If ablution is performed anywhere in the Ganga when the Sun is in the Makara (capricorn) sign of the zodiac, it sanctifies the universe by a bath in it or by drinking its water. 

it takes the whole universe to the capital of heaven (Indra’s city)²². 

22. It is called Amaravati.

43. Even god Shankara, the benefactor of the world who assumes the form of a linga,²³ is always devoted to the Ganga. How can its greatness be adequately described? 

23. Linga 

The word means ‘a distinguishing mark’ ‘characteristic’ and is used in this sense by all Brahmana and non-Brahmana shastric writers e.g., Br.Sū.4.1.2 lingaccha. For stating nudity as the distinguishing mark of a Sramana, Kunda-kunda (in Pravachanasära 3.25) says: uvayaranam jinamagge lingam jaha-jada-ruvam idi bhanitam The Shiva-linga is the symbol of the sacrificial fire ablaze. Rudra is identified with the Fire in RV.2.1.6, 3.2.5. etc. in AV.7.87.1. and in the Tait. Samhita 5.4.3.1 etc. The 8 epithets Sharva, Bhava, Pashupati, etc. are common to Rudra and Agni (AV.15.5.1-7, Shatapatha Br.1.7.3.8). The burial of skulls of animals under some sacrificial altars explains his epithets as “dweller in crematory”, “five-facedness” etc. if Tait. Samhita 5.7.10.1 is properly explained. The Linga as a ‘phallic symbol’ shows the ignorance of the Vedic identification of Rudra and the Sacrificial fire. It may be noted that some female deities e.g., Madalasă, the divine spouse of Khandoba-an incarnation of god Shiva, has a Linga as her representation, along with that of her spouse Shiva or Khåndoba. Shiva Lingas are found on the heads of gods like Vitthala of Pandharpur and goddesses like Vishalakshi. G.B. Dandage of Kolhapur in his Rudra, Yajna ani Shiva-linga (Kolhapur 1970) has made out a go about the identity of Rudra and Sacrificial fire and shown the weakness of the Phallic worship theory.

44. The Linga assumes the form of Hari. Lord Hari assumes the form of the Linga. There is not even the slightest difference between these two. One who differentiates between these, is a person of evil intellect. 

45. Only sinners, immersed in the ocean of ignorance, seek to make any difference between Hari and Shankara, the glorious Lords without beginning or end. 

46. They (i.e. learned men) say that Lord Hari who is the ruler of all the worlds and the ultimate cause (of all the causes), assumes the form of Rudra at the end of the Yugas. 

47. It is Lord Rudra who protects the entire universe in the form of Vishnu, and creates it assuming the form of Brahma. In the final analysis, god Shiva alone is all these three. 

48. The man who differentiates between Lord Hari, god Shiva and god Brahma, goes to the exceedingly terrible hell. 

49. This is the conclusion of all scriptures that he who sees Hara, Hari and Brahma all constituting the same deity attains the supreme bliss. 

50. God Vishnu (Janardana) who is omniscient and beginningless, and who is the omnipresent Lord and Creator of the worlds, is ever present there (at Kashi) in the form of a Linga. 

51. The Linga of Lord Käshi-Vishveshvara²⁴ is called Jyotirlinga. On seeing it, the excellent one of men merges in the supreme light of Brahman. 

24. Kashi Vishvešhvara: 

The presiding Deity of Kashi and the main Jyotir-linga in the 12 Jyotir lingas in India, it is glorified very highly in the Kasi Khanda (Sk.P. IV.ii.ch.99) according to which it is the Linga par excellence (ibid verse 51). It means, to the best of the knowledge of the author of Sk.P. Kashi khanda, god Shiva is represented in the form a linga at this place since time immemorial. The facts are otherwise. In the 7th cent. A.D., when Hiuen Tsiang visited the place, there was an august brass statue of about 100 feet height of god Mahadeva. To quote his words: “The statue of Deva Maheshvara, made of brass, is somewhat less than 100feet high. Its appearance is grave and majestic, and it app cars as though really living.” The iconoclastic fervour of Muslims razed important Hindu statues, images, shrines and the stones were used to construct their mosques and buildings even as far as Jaunpur (N.L. De-GDAMI, pp. 23-25). The fortunes of this god had their ups and downs, as Varanasi changed hands from Hindus to Buddhists, ultimately to rest for some time with the Hindu kings of Kanauj. But the temple and the Deity suffered worst at the hands of Muslims, in spite of attempts of Hindu chiefs under Moghuls, like Raja Todarmal and Hindu religious leaders. Sikhs and Marathas sealed the fate of the Moghul empire, and a Maratha queen Rani Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore built the present temple of Kasi Vishvešhvara in 1777.

52. If Kashi, the sanctifier of the three worlds, is circumambulated,²⁵ it is as good as the circle-ambulation of the whole earth consisting of seven continents, oceans and mountains.

25. Käshi-pradaksina 

This is a religious custom to show respect to a sacred place, shrine or town in which the Deity is situated. It consists of circumambulating the sacred object showing our right side to the deity after saluting it. 

prasarya dakshinam hastam svayam namra-shirah punaḥ |

dakshiņam darshayan pārshvam manasa’pi cha dakshinaḥ ||

Kalika and other puranas quoted in Shabda-kalpa-druma Part III.pp.273-74. 

53. There are spotless (brilliant) murtis (images) of Shiva or Achyuta made of metals, clay, wood or stone or their representations in paintings, etc. But Lord Hari is present in them all. 

54. God Hari is present wherever there is a grove of Tulasi plants on where there is a cluster of lotuses, or where the puranas are being read, O Brahmana. 

55. The propounder of the text of the puranas is also called Hari. Men who are devoted to them have (to their credit the merit of performing) bath in the Ganga every day. 

56. It is stated in Smrutis that pious inclination to listen to the puranas is on a par with the ablutions in the Ganga, and devotion unto the propounder is comparable to bath into Prayaga. 

57. He who, by recounting the purana dharmas, redeems and uplifts the entire world that is sunk and immersed in the ocean of worldly existence, is glorified as Hari himself. 

58. There is no other sacred water like that of the Ganga. There is no greater teacher than (honour, self-confidence. There is no other deity like Vishnu, and there is no other primary principle (or Brahman²⁶) other than the spiritual preceptor. 

26. tattva = Brahman, paramátma.

59. Just as the Brahmana is the most excellent of all castes, or the moon is the best of all constellations, and just as the ocean is the best of all rivers, so the Ganga is remembered as the greatest river. 

60. There is no kinsman on a par with calmness; there is no greater penance than truthfulness: no other acquisition is greater than liberation from samsara, and there is no other river on a par with the Ganga. 

61. The great name of the Ganga is like a forest conflagration unto the jungle of sins. The Ganga is the healer of the sickness called samsara (worldly existence); hence, it should be resorted to with assiduity. 

62. The Gayatri mantra and the river Ganga both of these are remembered to be the destroyers of all sins, O Brahmana. A person who is lacking in devotion to these two, should be known as a fallen fellow, O Brahmana. 

63. The Gayatri is the mother of all Vedic metres, the Ganga is the mother of the world. Both of them are the cause of destruction of all sins. “ 

64. If anyone is favoured by Gayatri, the Ganga too is pleased with him. Both of these possess the potency of Vishnu and both equally bestow desired objects as well as renown. 

65. Both of them are quite pure. They are, as it were, the fructification of the Purusharthas (desired objectives of human life, viz. righteousness, wealth, love and liberation from samsara). 

These great and excellent ones function for conferring blessings on the world. 

66. Rare indeed and very difficult to attain are the Gayatri, the Ganga, devotion to the Tulasi plant and devotion of Sattvic nature to Hari. 

67. O! How blessed is the Ganga! On being remembered, it destroys sins, on being seen it bestows the region of Hari. When its water is drunk, it grants sarupya (similarity of form like Vishnu). And men who perform ablutions therein, attain the excellent region of Vishnu. 

68. God Narayana, the Creater of the Universe, Vasudeva, the eternal deity, is the bestower of the fruits of all desired objects, to persons who are devoted to regular ablutions in the waters of Ganga. 

69. The excellent person who is sprinkled with at least a drop of water of Ganga, is liberated from all sins and he attains the highest region, Vaikuntha. 

70. It is only by taking in just a drop of its water that a descendant in the family of King Sagara,²⁷ eschewed the state of Rakshasa and attained to the supreme region.

27. King Sagara SKD (Shabda-kalpa-druma) Vol.II.p. 581.

A king worth remembering at dawn and dusk (Mbh.Anu.165.49) Posthumous son of king Bähuka of the Ikshvaku dynasty who, being deprived of his kingdom by Tålajamghas lived in exile in a forest near the hermitage of sage Aurva. His younger wife Yadavi who was pregnant, wanted to immolate herself after Båhuka’s death, but was prohibited from doing so by Aurva who told her that, the child in her womb, was destined to be an emperor of the world. The senior queen who was issueless became jealous of her younger co-wife and administered poison to her, with a view to kill the child in its embryonic stage. But as fortune would have it, a son along with the poison (sagara) was born. (Bm.P. 2.3.48-49). The child grew up in Aurva’s hermitage and presumed Aurva to be his father. The mother told him the story of her life, and Sagara determined to reconquer Ayodhya. In the meanwhile, Vasishtha and the citizens of Ayodhya whose struggle of liberation was going on, got a leader in Sagara, and he reconquered his father’s kingdom and ruled at Ayodhya. 

Sagara subdued the Talajanghas and became the absolute monarch of the world. From his queen Sumati, he had a son Asamanjasa who troubled his subjects, and was exiled for that. He had 60,000 sons from the lump of flesh delivered by his second wife Keshini. 

Sagara performed 99 horse-sacrifices, but when he was to perform the 100th sacrifice, Indra, being afraid of losing his position, stole the horse and kept it near sage Kapila’s hermitage in the nether world. Sagara’s 60000 sons traced the horse by means of its hoof-prints, and dug down to Patala. The horse was near the hermitage of Kapila, who was immersed in meditation. Thinking him to be the horse-thief, they attacked him only to get reduced to ashes. (Mbh. Vana 107.33). 

Sagara retired making Amshuman, the son of prince Asamanjasa, as the next (MBH. Vana 107.64) king and performed penance for bringing down the Ganga on the ashes in Aurväshrama. (Bh.P.9.8.5-31). He was strictly Vegetarian (Mbh. Anu. 115.66).