Chandas
Chandas is the science of metre in Sanskrit: the rules for the rhythm and length of verse lines. It is one of the six Vedāṅgas, the “limbs of the Veda” that help us recite and understand the Veda correctly, and it is called the “feet” of the Veda.
The Agni Purāṇa (Chapters 328–336) gives a full account of chandas, taught by Agni-deva. It covers the basic units used to study metre, the names and kinds of all the main Vedic and classical metres, the counting system called prastāra, and the related science of śikṣā, which governs the sounds and accents of the Veda. The Nārada Purāṇa also has a shorter chapter on the subject.
What Chandas Is and Why It Matters
In the body of the Veda, chandas holds the place of the “feet” (pādau). Feet hold up the whole body and let it move. In the same way, chandas holds up the Vedic mantras and makes it possible to say them properly and pass them on. As one of the six Vedāṅgas, chandas cannot be done without. Without knowing metre, even a brahmavādī (one who speaks of Brahman) cannot rightly recite, compose or understand Vedic and classical Sanskrit texts.
The Agni Purāṇa opens the subject by saying it will explain chandas in the tradition of Piṅgala, the great ṛṣi known for the founding work on Sanskrit metre, and in line with the root mantras of the Veda (veda-mūla-mantrānusāreṇa).
The Basic Units of Metre
Before describing the metres themselves, the Agni Purāṇa sets out the basic units used to study them.
Akṣara: The Syllable
The akṣara (syllable) is the smallest unit of metre. Every syllable is either guru (heavy) or laghu (light). Guru is marked “ga” and laghu is marked “la”. The rules are:
- Every dīrgha (long) syllable is guru.
- A hrasva (short) syllable at the end of a pāda (a quarter or line of verse) may be counted as guru if the poet wishes.
- A short syllable just before a visarga, an anusvāra, a group of joined consonants, a jihvāmūlīya or an upadhmānīya (special breath sounds) is also counted as guru.
The Eight Gaṇas
All metrical patterns are studied through eight groups of three syllables called gaṇas. Each is named by one letter, as a memory aid:
| Gaṇa | Pattern | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ma-gaṇa | GGG | All three syllables guru |
| na-gaṇa | LLL | All three syllables laghu |
| bha-gaṇa | GLL | First guru, the rest laghu (ādi-guru) |
| ya-gaṇa | LGG | First laghu, the rest guru (ādi-laghu) |
| sa-gaṇa | LLG | Last guru, the two before it laghu (antya-guru) |
| ta-gaṇa | GGL | Last laghu, the two before it guru (antya-laghu) |
| ra-gaṇa | GLG | Middle laghu, first and last guru |
| ja-gaṇa | LGL | Middle guru, first and last laghu |
Outside the gaṇas, “ga” stands for a single guru and “la” for a single laghu. Chandas texts also use word-codes for numbers: the number eight is shown by the word “vasu”, and the number four by the word “veda”.
The Vedic Metres (Chapters 328–331)
The Agni Purāṇa presents the Vedic metres in the way Piṅgala set them out. The basic idea is that Gāyatrī is the root metre from which all the others come. The text describes several kinds of Gāyatrī that come from combining the three main Vedic forms of Gāyatrī, the Daivī (of the devas), the Āsurī (of the asuras) and the Prājāpatyā (of Prajāpati), with the Yājuṣī (of the Yajurveda), Sāmnī (of the Sāmaveda) and Ārcī (of the Ṛgveda) kinds.
The seven main Vedic metres, with the number of syllables in each pāda, are:
| Metre | Syllables per pāda | Total syllables (4 pādas) |
|---|---|---|
| Gāyatrī | 6 (or 8 in standard form) | 24 |
| Uṣṇik | 7 (or 11 per pāda in one variant) | 28 |
| Anuṣṭup | 8 | 32 |
| Bṛhatī | 9 (main pāda) | 36 |
| Paṅkti | 10 | 40 |
| Triṣṭup | 11 | 44 |
| Jagatī | 12 | 48 |
Each of these seven main metres has many sub-kinds, which come from spreading the syllables across the pādas in different ways. The Agni Purāṇa lists many of them.
Kinds of Gāyatrī. The standard Gāyatrī has three pādas of eight syllables each. Its variants include:
- Nicṛt-Gāyatrī: three pādas of seven syllables each
- Pratiṣṭhā-Gāyatrī: pādas of 8, 7 and 6 syllables
- Vardhamāna-Gāyatrī: pādas of 6, 7 and 8 syllables
- Atipāda-Nicṛt: pādas of 6, 8 and 7 syllables
- Nāgī-Gāyatrī: pādas of 9, 9 and 6 syllables
- Vārāhī-Gāyatrī: pādas of 6, 9 and 9 syllables
Kinds of Anuṣṭup. The standard Anuṣṭup has four pādas of eight syllables (32 in all). There is also an Anuṣṭup with three pādas. Its variants include Puroṣṭubṛhatī, Nyaṅku-sāriṇī-Bṛhatī and Uparṣṭāt-Bṛhatī.
Kinds of Bṛhatī. These mix Jagatī and Gāyatrī pādas. Its variants include:
- Pathyā-Bṛhatī: the third pāda repeats the first
- Nyaṅku-sāriṇī-Bṛhatī: a Jagatī pāda stands in the second place
- Uparṣṭāt-Bṛhatī: the Jagatī pāda comes at the end
Viṣama-vṛttas: Uneven Metres (Chapter 332)
Viṣama-vṛttas are metres in which all four pādas are of different lengths: no two pādas have the same number of syllables or the same pattern of gaṇas. They are among the hardest and most technical metres. The Agni Purāṇa names several of them and shows the principle through their gaṇa patterns. Poets use them for special effects, and they appear in classical Sanskrit poetry where the unevenness of the rhythm itself adds to the meaning or mood of the verse.
Ardha-sama-vṛttas: Half-Even Metres (Chapter 333)
In ardha-sama metres, the first and third pādas match each other, and the second and fourth pādas match each other, but the two pairs are different. The Agni Purāṇa names many ardha-sama metres and gives their gaṇa patterns. The main ones are:
| Metre | First pāda | Second pāda |
|---|---|---|
| Yady-upacitrakam | sa, sa, sa, sa, ri, ga | bha, bha, bha, ga, ga (the second half mirrors the first) |
| Dhṛta-madhya | bha, bha, bha, ga, ga | na, ja, ja, ja |
| Vegavatī | sa, sa, sa, ga | bha, bha, tha, ga |
| Bhadra-virāṭ | ta, ja, ra | ya, sa, ja, ga, ga |
| Hetumatī | sa, ja, sa, ga | bha, ra, na, ga, ga |
| Ādhyānikī | ta, ta, ja, ga, ga | ja, ta, ja, ga, ga |
| Hariṇapluta | sa, sa, sa, la, ga | na, bha, bha, ra |
| Aparavaktra | na, na, ra, la, ga | na, ja, ja, ra |
| Puṣpitāgrā | na, ra, ya | na, na, ja, ra, ga |
| Yamāvatī | ra, ja, ra, la | ja, ra, ja, ra, ga |
Two more are described by counting syllables:
- Śikhā: the first and third pādas have twenty-eight laghus and one guru; the second and fourth have thirty laghus and one guru.
- Khañja: the reverse arrangement of Śikhā.
Sama-vṛttas: Even Metres (Chapter 334)
Sama-vṛttas are even metres, in which all four pādas have the same gaṇa pattern and the same number of syllables. These are the main metres of classical Sanskrit kāvya (poetry). The Agni Purāṇa gives the gaṇa patterns of the chief ones, moving from the shortest to the grandest:
| Metre | Syllables per pāda | Gaṇas | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Indravajrā | 11 | ta, ta, ja, ga, ga | The standard noble verse, used for dignified subjects |
| Upendravajrā | 11 | ja, ta, ja, ga, ga | Begins with a laghu, giving a lighter feel than Indravajrā |
| Upajāti | 11 | A mix of Indravajrā and Upendravajrā pādas in one verse | The most common 11-syllable metre in Sanskrit poetry |
| Vaṃśastha | 12 | ja, ta, ja, ra | Used for dialogue and storytelling |
| Vasantatilakā | 14 | ta, bha, ja, ja, ga, ga | “Ornament of Spring”; one of the most used classical metres |
| Mālinī | 15 | na, na, ma, ya, ya | “The garland metre”, used for lyrical passages |
| Śikhariṇī | 17 | ya, ma, na, sa, bha, la, ga | “The crest metre”, known for its majestic sweep |
| Mandākrāntā | 17 | ma, bha, na, ta, ta, ga, ga | “The slow-moving metre”, famous from Kālidāsa’s Meghadūta; used for longing and separation |
| Śārdūlavikrīḍita | 19 | ma, sa, ja, sa, ta, ta, ga | “The play of the tiger”; the most widely used metre for grand verses in Sanskrit texts |
| Sragdharā | 21 | ma, ra, bha, na, ya, ya, ya | “The garland-bearer”; the longest and most stately of the common classical metres |
Prastāra: Counting Every Pattern (Chapter 335)
Prastāra is the mathematical method for listing, naming and finding every possible metrical pattern of a given length. In a metre of n syllables, each syllable is either guru or laghu, so there are 2ⁿ possible patterns. Prastāra is the method for:
- writing out all these patterns in a fixed order
- finding the position number (saṃkhyā) of any given pattern in that order
- working back from a position number to the pattern it stands for
Following Piṅgala, the Agni Purāṇa presents prastāra as a basic tool for the student of chandas. With it, any metrical pattern found in the Vedas or in classical poetry can be identified exactly and reproduced. The text describes the working rules: the method of halving, the method of finding the remainder, and the step-by-step placing of guru and laghu.
Śikṣā: The Sounds of the Veda (Chapter 336)
Śikṣā is the Vedāṅga that deals with the correct pronunciation of Vedic mantras. It is called the “nose” (nāsikā) of the Veda. It makes sure that the sound of each mantra is kept perfectly the same from generation to generation, because even a small mistake in pronunciation can change a mantra’s effect or cancel it.
Svara: Vedic Accent
Vedic Sanskrit has three main pitch-accents:
- Udātta (raised): the syllable is said at a higher pitch. Some Vedic recitation traditions mark it with special signs.
- Anudātta (lowered): the syllable is said at a lower pitch.
- Svarita (falling): a mixed accent that starts at the udātta level and falls. It usually follows an udātta syllable and has its own distinct sound.
Using these three accents correctly is essential to the meaning of Vedic mantras. In Vedic Sanskrit, the same string of syllables with different accents can give quite different words and meanings.
Sthānas: Where Sounds Are Made
Śikṣā sorts all Sanskrit sounds by their main place of production in the mouth (uccāraṇa-sthāna):
| Place | Sounds |
|---|---|
| Kaṇṭha (throat) | The vowels a, ā and the visarga made in the throat; the throat consonants ka, kha, ga, gha, ṅa; the sound ha |
| Tālu (palate) | The vowels i, ī; the palatal consonants ca, cha, ja, jha, ña; the semivowel ya; the sibilant śa |
| Mūrdhā (roof of the mouth) | The vowel ṛ; the retroflex consonants ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ḍha, ṇa; the semivowel ra; the sibilant ṣa |
| Danta (teeth) | The vowel ḷ; the dental consonants ta, tha, da, dha, na; the semivowel la; the sibilant sa |
| Oṣṭha (lips) | The vowels u, ū; the lip consonants pa, pha, ba, bha, ma; the semivowel va |
| Nāsikā (nose) | The five nasal consonants ṅa, ña, ṇa, na, ma also sound through the nose; the anusvāra is fully nasal |
| Combined places | The vowels e, ai come from throat and palate; o, au from throat and lips; va from teeth and lips |
A trained reciter must know this well, so that each sound of a Vedic mantra comes from its correct place and carries the full resonance intended by the ṛṣis who first heard these mantras and passed them on.
Chandas in the Nārada Purāṇa (Chapter 57)
Chapter 57 of the Nārada Mahā Purāṇa gives a shorter account of Vedic metre, focusing on the metre of Vedic mantras (ṛks):
- Māna and vṛtta: The māna (measure) of a chandas is its vṛtta (metrical pattern). The pāda (foot or quarter) is the unit of structure, and three causes decide how a pāda is built.
- The metre of the ṛks: Ṛks (verses of the Ṛgveda) are svacchanda-vṛttis, free-flowing metres. The count of syllables decides the pāda structure of a ṛk. Ṛks should be shown through their svara-bhakti (tonal side) and their syllable count together.
- Guru and laghu: A short syllable that does not stand before joined consonants is laghu (light). A long syllable, a short syllable before joined consonants, a short syllable pressed by an ūṣman (a sibilant or breathy sound), and certain other cases are guru (heavy).
- Svara-bhakti: Svara-bhakti (a slight vowel-like sound) occurs in the letter ṛ and in the repha (r sound). It is of two kinds: svarodaya (rising into a vowel) and vyañjanodaya (rising into a consonant). With the sibilants (ś, ṣ, s) it is svarodaya; with the letter ha it is vyañjanodaya.
- The Viṣpulā vṛtta: a metre in which the first and third pādas have twelve mātrās (units of length) each, the second pāda has eighteen mātrās, and the fourth pāda has fifteen.
- The eight pāda-svaras: the eight ways accent can fall within a pāda are antodātta, ādyudātta, udātta, anudātta, nīcasvarita, madhyodātta, svarita and dvirudātta.
Sources
- Agni Mahā Purāṇa (Part 4), Chapters 328–336
- Nārada Mahā Purāṇa, Pūrvārdha, Chapter 57