Gāndharva Vivāha
Gāndharva vivāha is one of the eight recognised forms of vivāha (marriage) described in the dharmaśāstras, the texts on dharma. It is a marriage based on the mutual desire of a man and a woman, who come together directly. There are no formal ceremonies, no sacred fire, no role for the parents, and no purohitas (family priests). It is named after the gandharvas, divine beings known for music, beauty, desire and free union.
In the Mahābhārata it is shown as a valid form of marriage especially for kshatriyas (the warrior and ruling class), alongside the rākshasa vivāha. The best-known examples in the Ādi Parva involve the Pāṇḍavas. Bhīma’s union with Hiḍimbā was of this kind, and Arjuna’s union with Ulūpī has similar features. The marriage of Dushyanta and Śakuntalā, told elsewhere in the Ādi Parva, is the classic example.
What It Is
The dharmaśāstras define gāndharva vivāha as a union based on the mutual kāma (desire) of a man and a woman, with no one else involved. There is no father giving away his daughter, no bride-price, no sacred fire, and no mantras recited by a purohita. The two come together by their own free will, and that meeting itself makes a valid marriage.
The Manusmṛti and other smṛtis list eight forms of marriage:
- Brāhma
- Daiva
- Ārsha
- Prājāpatya
- Āsura
- Gāndharva
- Rākshasa
- Paiśāca
The gāndharva form is held to be valid, and in some settings even praised, for kshatriyas. For them, freedom of action and choices based on desire were seen as a fitting expression of their nature.
Gāndharva and Rākshasa Forms
In a gāndharva vivāha, the woman takes part willingly. The rākshasa vivāha is marriage by capture: a warrior takes a woman by force after defeating her family or protectors in battle. Both are recognised for kshatriyas, and the two are often named together as the forms that suit kshatriya dharma.
When Kṛshṇa advised Arjuna to carry off Subhadrā instead of waiting for a svayaṃvara (a ceremony in which a bride chooses her husband), he openly named the rākshasa form as the right kshatriya way in that situation.
Examples in the Ādi Parva
- Bhīma and Hiḍimbā: After Bhīma killed the rākshasa Hiḍimba, his sister Hiḍimbā offered herself to Bhīma out of her own desire. Kuntī gave her blessing. The union was limited in time by agreed terms, but it was in effect of the gāndharva kind.
- Arjuna and Ulūpī: Ulūpī, out of desire, drew Arjuna into her world. He accepted her reasoning and stayed one night. The text tells this as a valid union in keeping with dharma.
- Arjuna and Subhadrā (rākshasa form): Carrying off Subhadrā on Kṛshṇa’s advice was plainly the rākshasa vivāha form. Kṛshṇa named it as such and justified it on that basis.
Sources
- Mahābhārata, Ādi Parva (Part 3)
- Mahābhārata, Ādi Parva, Chapter 219