Dharmāraṇya Khaṇḍa of the Skanda Purāṇa: Chapter Guide
Dharmāraṇya Khaṇḍa · dharma-araṇya khaṇḍa, “the section on the forest of dharma”
The Skanda Purāṇa is the largest of the Purāṇas, the great collections of sacred history and teaching. Its Brahma Khaṇḍa (the “Brahmā section”) contains the Dharmāraṇya Khaṇḍa, which is in two halves. The Pūrvārdha (first half) has 20 chapters. The Uttarārdha (second half), also called the Brahmottara Khaṇḍa, has 22 chapters.
The first half tells the sacred history of Dharmāraṇya, “the forest of Dharma”. Here Dharma did tapas (austerity) and Śiva named the kshetra (holy place). Here Vishṇu settled 18,000 brāhmaṇas, and Vishṇu, Śiva, Gaṇeśa, Sūrya and Indra set up lasting sacred liṅgas, tīrthas (holy bathing places) and kshetras. It also covers the sadācāra (good daily conduct) of brāhmaṇas, gṛhastha-dharma (the duties of the householder), the eight kinds of marriage, pativratā-dharma (the dharma of the devoted wife) and the 24 brāhmaṇa gotras (family lines). The second half, the Brahmottara Khaṇḍa, is a series of 22 chapters on the glory of Śiva, told by Sūta to the ṛshis of Naimishāraṇya. It covers the Pañcākshara mantra, Gokarṇa Caturdaśī, Pradosha, the Somavāra (Monday) vrata, the story of Bhadrāyu, bhasma (sacred ash) and the tripuṇḍra mark, rudrāksha, the Rudrādhyāya, the Umā-Maheśvara vrata and Purāṇa-śravaṇa (listening to the Purāṇas). Each teaching is shown through stories, and the whole ends by declaring that listening to the Purāṇas is the highest dharma for the Kali Yuga.
The Frame Story
The text opens with the ṛshis gathered around Sūta at Naimishāraṇya. Sūta explains that the glory of Dharmāraṇya was first told in the assembly of Brahmā. Yama heard it there and passed it to Nārada, who told it to Yudhishṭhira. Vyāsa then arrived and took over the telling, with Yudhishṭhira asking questions through all twenty chapters.
Pūrvārdha (First Half): Chapter by Chapter
Chapter 1: The Frame Story and Introduction
The Dharmāraṇya Khaṇḍa begins with Sūta speaking to the ṛshis of Naimishāraṇya. The sacred story of Dharmāraṇya was heard by Yama in Brahmā’s assembly. Yama passed it to Nārada, Nārada told it to Yudhishṭhira, and Vyāsa arrives to continue the full account. The city of Dharmāraṇya, also called Satya Mandira, is introduced as supremely holy.
Chapter 2: The Glory of Dharmāraṇya
Vyāsa praises Dharmāraṇya as holier than Vārāṇasī. All the tīrthas of the three worlds are always present there. The city is home to 18,000 brāhmaṇas, supported by the kājeśas (merchant rulers). No fear troubles those who live there, and the kshetra grants liberation even in the Kali Yuga.
Chapter 3: Dharma’s Tapas, Indra’s Fear and the Apsarā Vardhanī
Dharma, the deva of righteousness, in the form of a bull, came to Dharmāraṇya and did very fierce tapas under an aśoka tree for 30,000 years. Indra feared he would lose his place. He sent Urvaśī and other apsarās (heavenly dancers) to tempt Dharma away from his austerities. Among them was the apsarā Vardhanī, who came to the beautiful forest of Dharmāraṇya.
Chapter 4: Śiva Appears, Dharmāraṇya Is Named, and the Dharmeśvara Liṅga
When Vardhanī came before Dharma, he learned that Indra had sent her, and he was not disturbed. He gave Vardhanī a tīrtha named after her, the Vardhanī Tīrtha. He then went on with his tapas amid five fires (pañcāgni). Śiva appeared before him, blazing with divine light. Dharma offered Śiva a stotra (hymn of praise) of forty names, the Dharma-Śiva-Stotra. Śiva was pleased and named the place Dharmāraṇya after the one who had made it holy. He told Dharma to create the Dharma Vāpī (a sacred tank) and the Dharmeśvara Liṅga there. Dharma made the Dharma Vāpī, and Śiva took up his lasting presence there as Dharmeśvara. The glory (māhātmya) of the Dharma Vāpī for piṇḍa offerings, śrāddha (rites for the ancestors) and sacred bathing is declared.
Chapter 5: Sadācāra for the Brāhmaṇas Who Live There
The daily good conduct laid down for the brāhmaṇas of Dharmāraṇya is described: rising before dawn, morning cleansing (śauca), dantadhāvana (cleaning the teeth), prātaḥ-snāna (the morning bath), sandhyāvandana (the twilight rites), prāṇāyāma with kumbhaka (breath-holding), Gāyatrī japa, and tarpaṇa (offerings of water to the devas, ṛshis and pitṛs, the ancestors) with the proper mantras, as well as right conduct through the rest of the day.
Chapter 6: Gṛhastha-Dharma, the Eight Kinds of Marriage, and Pativratā-Dharma
The eight kinds of vivāha (marriage) are described: Brāhma, Daiva, Ārsha, Prājāpatya, Gāndharva, Rākshasa, Paiśāca and Āsura. For each the text gives its meaning, its merit, and the qualities of children born from it. Detailed rules for the householder follow: the pañca-mahāyajña (five great daily offerings), care of guests, and right behaviour toward one’s wife, family and elders. A long teaching on pativratā-dharma, the duties and glory of devoted wives, comes next, including special observances for the months of Vaiśākha and Kārttika.
Chapter 7: The Glory of the Dharma Vāpī, the Kali Yuga, and the Glory of the Pativratā
The sacred uses of the Dharma Vāpī for piṇḍadāna and śrāddha are described in detail. The glory of Dharmāraṇya through the four yugas (ages) is praised. The chapter also describes the marks of the Kali Yuga and goes on with further glories of pativratā-dharma.
Chapter 8: The Story of Creation; the Deities Gather at Dharmāraṇya
Skanda asks Śiva about the sacred history of Dharmāraṇya. Śiva tells of the creation of the universe: the Mahāpralaya (great dissolution), Vishṇu resting on a banyan leaf, the birth of Brahmā from the lotus in Vishṇu’s navel, the appearance of the great world-tree (Mahā-vṛksha), Brahmā’s creation of the 21 Prajāpatis, Brahmā’s journey to Vaikuṇṭha, and the gathering of all the great deities (Brahmā, Śiva, Vishṇu, Yama, Indra and others) at the sacred site of Dharmāraṇya.
Chapter 9: Vishṇu Arrives; Yama’s Stotra; 18,000 Brāhmaṇas; the 24 Gotras
Vishṇu arrives at Dharmāraṇya. Yama offers him a stotra, the Yama-Vishṇu-Stotra. Vishṇu is pleased and grants the great boon of settling 18,000 brāhmaṇas in Dharmāraṇya for all time. The 24 brāhmaṇa gotras of Dharmāraṇya are described, with their pravaras (lists of ancestral ṛshis) and their special traits. A yaksha named Jṛmbhara troubles the brāhmaṇas, and the deities set up 25 yoginīs as kula-devatās (family deities) for the gotras.
Chapter 10: Kāmadhenu, the Merchants, and Lolajihva Destroys Dharmāraṇya
Brahmā calls Kāmadhenu, the wish-fulfilling cow. From her are born 36,000 vāṇija (merchant) families, who settle in Dharmāraṇya. The 60,000 gandharva daughters of Viśvāvasu are married to them. In the Tretā Yuga the rākshasa Lolajihva appears, driven by adharma, and wholly destroys Dharmāraṇya, burning the city to the ground. Vishṇu comes with the Sudarśana cakra (discus) and kills Lolajihva.
Chapter 11: Satya Mandira; the Brāhmaṇas Return
After Lolajihva is killed, the brāhmaṇas and merchants return and rebuild the city. The brāhmaṇas name the restored city Satya Mandira, “the abode of truth”. Its sacred layout is set: the Dharmeśvara liṅga in the east, Gaṇādhipati (Gaṇeśa) in the south, Sūrya in the west and Svayambhū in the north.
Chapter 12: The Birth of Gaṇeśa and His Installation at Dharmāraṇya
Yudhishṭhira asks how Gaṇeśa came to be installed at Dharmāraṇya. Vyāsa tells of Gaṇeśa’s birth. Pārvatī shaped a figure from the ubṭan (cleansing paste) of her own body and breathed life into it. The figure became her devoted son and stood guard at her door. When Mahādeva came and was refused entry, a terrible fight broke out, and Śiva cut off the boy’s head. Pārvatī grieved. Śiva saw the elephant asura Gajāsura nearby, took the elephant’s head, placed it on the boy and brought him back to life. So Gaṇeśa was born with an elephant’s head. The devas gathered and offered a stotra to Gaṇeśa, the Devatā-Gaṇeśa-Stotra. Gaṇeśa agreed to stay in Dharmāraṇya as the lasting protector of all its brāhmaṇas and merchants.
Chapter 13: Sūrya at Dharmāraṇya; the Story of Saṃjñā; the Bakulārka Tīrtha
The placing of Sūrya (the son of Kaśyapa) on the western side of Satya Mandira is described. Yudhishṭhira asks about the Aśvins and the Bakulārka tīrtha. Vyāsa tells the story of Saṃjñā and Chāyā, a version of the account in the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa. Saṃjñā could not bear Sūrya’s tejas (fiery brilliance), so she made Chāyā, a shadow of herself, to take her place. She then did tapas at Dharmāraṇya under a bakula tree in the form of a mare, and the twin Aśvins were born there. Sūrya’s presence at the bakula tree gave rise to the Bakulārka Tīrtha, and its glory is told.
Chapter 14: Vishṇu’s Tapas at Dharmāraṇya; How Hayagrīva Came to Be
Yudhishṭhira asks about Vishṇu’s tapas at Dharmāraṇya and why Vishṇu came to have a horse’s head (Hayagrīva). The devas called Vishṇu to a great yajña (fire ritual), but found him in deep yogic sleep. White ants (vamrī) chewed through the bowstring (dhanush-guṇa) on which his chin rested. The bow snapped, and the sound was taken as the bow cutting through. In the confusion, Vishṇu’s head was lost by accident. Earlier, in an assembly, Vishṇu had said that Brahmā was under Vishṇu’s māyā, and Brahmā had cursed him that his head would fall. The devas brought the head of a horse from Sūrya’s chariot, and Viśvakarmā joined it on. The devas offered a stotra to Hayagrīva, who was happy in his horse-headed form.
Chapter 15: Hayagrīva’s Tapas; the Devavarma Tīrtha; Mukteśvara
After receiving the horse’s head, Hayagrīva did tapas at Dharmāraṇya for 300 years. Brahmā also did tapas there. A sacred lake called Devavarma arose at the spot. Brahmā, Vishṇu and Śiva together set up the Mukteśvara liṅga of Śiva there. The fruit of bathing at Devavarma and of pūjā to Mukteśvara is described.
Chapter 16: The Śaktis of Dharmāraṇya; Ānanda Śakti
The kājeśas set up protecting Śaktis (forms of the Devī) in the main and in-between directions of Dharmāraṇya. Śrīmātā is in the gotra-land (the Gātrāyī quarter). Sāvitrī is in the north. Ānanda Śakti, clothed in white, riding a lion, four-armed and holding an akshamālā (string of beads) and a khaḍga (sword), guards the eastern quarter. The form, pūjā and fruit of each Śakti are described.
Chapter 17: Śāntā Devī; Śrīmātā as Family Deity
Śāntā Devī in the south is described. She is dark in colour, eight-armed and rides a tiger, and she is Madhu-Kaiṭabha-nāśinī, the destroyer of Madhu and Kaiṭabha. Śrīmātā is the kula-devatā set up by Brahmā for the brāhmaṇa families of Dharmāraṇya. She is a kumārī (young maiden), ten-armed, holding an akshamālā, and is worshipped on every auspicious occasion. Her method of pūjā, her seasonal observances and their fruit are described.
Chapter 18: The Daitya Karṇāṭaka; Mātaṅgī; How Karṇāṭaka Got Its Name
A daitya (asura) named Karṇāṭaka terrorised all the dhārmika people of Satya Mandira, carrying off married couples and defiling religious observances. The brāhmaṇas and merchants fled. An ākāśavāṇī (a voice from the sky) told them to worship Śrīmātā. In her fury Śrīmātā brought forth Mātaṅgī, a fearsome eighteen-armed form, who fought Karṇāṭaka for months. The brāhmaṇas offered a stotra to Śrīmātā, the Vipra-Śrīmātā-Stotra. At last Mātaṅgī killed Karṇāṭaka. As he departed, the daitya claimed the region to the south as his own realm, and from then on that region was known as Karṇāṭaka. The method of Mātaṅgī pūjā and the Yaksha-vrata are taught.
Chapter 19: Indra’s Tapas; Indreśvara; Jayantīśvara
Indra came to Dharmāraṇya and did tapas for 100 years standing on one big toe, his arms raised and his face turned to the sun. He was seeking freedom from brahmahatyā, the pāpa of having killed Vṛtrāsura. Śiva appeared and declared that in Dharmāraṇya no brahmahatyā or mahāpāpa (great wrong) can touch anyone. Śiva set up the Indreśvara liṅga in Dharmāraṇya. Indra’s son Jayanta also installed the Jayantīśvara liṅga. The fruit these bring to pilgrims is described.
Chapter 20: Śiva’s Fall; Pārvatī’s Tapas; Dharā Kshetra
At Dharmāraṇya, after teaching Pārvatī the Śākinī-mantra-kūṭas (groups of Śākinī mantras), Śiva fell into unconsciousness (moha). His divine belongings, his jaṭās (matted locks), the moon, his snakes, weapons and skull, fell scattered on the ground. Pārvatī bound him and then did tapas amid five fires to win him back. She praised him with a stotra using the Śākinī bījas (seed-syllables), the Pārvatī-Śiva-Stotra. Śiva was pleased and woke again. The place where Śiva fell is called Dharā Kshetra and is said to be supremely purifying. The Mukteśvara Śiva, a separate installation, is set up here. Bathing at Dharā Kshetra on Āśvayuja Kṛshṇa Caturdaśī (the fourteenth day of the dark half of Āśvayuja) brings immense fruit.
Uttarārdha (Second Half, the Brahmottara Khaṇḍa): Chapter by Chapter
The Uttarārdha is the second half of the Dharmāraṇya Khaṇḍa, told by Sūta to the ṛshis at Naimishāraṇya. It begins with the ṛshis asking to hear the glories of Śiva’s devotees, Śiva’s mantras and the stories of Śiva. Sūta then teaches through an unbroken series of māhātmyas (accounts of the glory of a practice), each shown through one or more stories.
Chapter 1: The Glory of the Pañcākshara, and the Opening
Sūta begins by declaring that japa-yajña, the offering of repeating a mantra, is the highest of all yajñas, and that the Pañcākshara, “Oṃ Namaḥ Śivāya”, is the highest of all japa. Śiva himself made this mantra for beings bound in saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death). It needs no dīkshā (initiation) or homa and is always open to all. The sacred kshetras where it brings siddhi (success) at once are Prayāga, Pushkara, Kedāra, Setubandha, Gokarṇa and Naimishāraṇya. A story begins, about a king of Mathurā and the queen Kalāvatī, which leads into the group of teachings on Gokarṇa Caturdaśī.
Chapters 2 and 3: Sumitrā, Gokarṇa Caturdaśī (Part One)
A brāhmaṇa girl named Sumitrā, because of a fault in her karma, died and was reborn as a cāṇḍālī (an outcaste woman). Through her past link with the Mitranahu brāhmaṇa family, and because she heard a Purāṇa being told at Gokarṇa by chance, the power of Gokarṇa and of the Caturdaśī tithi set her on the path to Parameśvara Loka, the world of Śiva. The glory of Gokarṇa Caturdaśī is established: the tithi and the kshetra together work without any conditions.
Chapter 4: Vimardhana, Gokarṇa Caturdaśī (Part Two)
This is the story of Vimardhana, a kirāta (forest-dwelling) king who, in a past life, had been a dog that was near a Śiva-pūjā. The Caturdaśī at Gokarṇa was the means of his liberation across many births. The teaching that the Caturdaśī works whatever one’s birth, vará¹a or preparation is made stronger.
Chapter 5: Candrasena and Śrīkara, the Glory of Pradosha
Candrasena, king of Ujjayinī, owned the Cintāmaṇi jewel. Enemy kings laid siege to the city. On a Śani-Pradosha (a Pradosha falling on a Saturday), both the king and the young cowherd boy Śrīkara did heartfelt pūjā to Śiva. Śiva’s gaṇas (attendants) defeated the enemy armies. The glory of Pradosha, the teaching on Śiva’s dance at twilight on Trayodaśī (the thirteenth lunar day), is given in full, with the complete method of pūjā and the verses of the stotra. Hanumān comes down and foretells that Kṛshṇa will be born in the eighth generation after Śrīkara.
Chapters 6 and 7: Dharmagupta of Vidarbha
King Pratharatha of Vidarbha was killed. The queen was swallowed by a crocodile. The baby prince was found and brought up by Umā, a brāhmaṇa widow. Śāṇḍilya Ṛshi recognised the child’s royal descent. The gandharva princess Aṃśumatī is woven into the story. In the end Dharmagupta wins back his kingdom.
Chapters 8 and 9: Sīmantinī, the Glory of the Somavāra Vrata
Sīmantinī, daughter of Citravarman, was taught the Somavāra (Monday) vrata by Maitreyī, to turn away the widowhood written in her karma. Her husband Candrāṅgada, the grandson of Nala, was seized by Takshaka and held in Nāga-loka (the world of the serpents), but the power of the vrata protected him even there. The story of how Sāmavanta’s gender was changed by bathwater on a Monday is told. Pārvatī steps in and Candrāṅgada is set free. The full teaching of the Somavāra vrata and its fruit is given.
Chapters 10 to 14: Bhadrāyu and Kīrtimālinī, a Long Story
This is the longest story of the Brahmottara Khaṇḍa. Mandara, a wrongdoer, and Piṅgalā, a gaṇikā (courtesan), died at Gokarṇa on a Caturdaśī. They were reborn as Bhadrāyu, prince of Kāśmīra, and Kīrtimālinī, a princess, destined to meet again. The yogī Ṛshabha gives Bhadrāyu teaching on dharma (dharma-upadeśa), the Śiva Kavaca (a protective stotra, Chapter 12), a divine sword, a divine conch and the strength of bhasma, equal to 12,000 elephants. Bhadrāyu defeats Hemaratha. Śiva appears in his full five-faced form. Bhadrāyu marries Kīrtimālinī and rules for ten thousand years, and both reach Śivaloka.
Chapters 15 and 16: Vāmadeva and the Brahmarākshasa, the Glory of Bhasma and Tripuṇḍra
The yogī Vāmadeva was seized in the Krauñcāraṇya forest by a brahmarākshasa (the restless spirit of a fallen brāhmaṇa). The bhasma on Vāmadeva’s body at once destroyed the pāpa of twenty-five of the brahmarākshasa’s births. Vāmadeva then taught the glory of bhasma and the tripuṇḍra, the three horizontal lines of ash worn on the forehead. The three lines stand for the three fires, the three Vedas, the three worlds, the three guṇas, the three śaktis and nine devatās. The brahmarākshasa was set free. There is also the story of a dead wrongdoer whose body was touched by chance by a dog carrying bhasma. Śiva’s messengers took him to Śivaloka, even though Yama objected.
Chapter 17: Caṇḍuka the Śabara, the Power of Śraddhā
As a joke, the prince Vaṅketu told Caṇḍuka, a tribal man, to make a Śiva-liṅga from ash of the cremation ground and to worship it. Caṇḍuka followed these words with complete sincerity. His wife, Śabarī, gave up her life in the fire to join him. Śiva appeared, brought her back to life, and took both Caṇḍuka and Śabarī to Śivaloka. The teaching is that śraddhā (sincere faith) is the heart of all pūjā, greater than correct materials or right knowledge.
Chapters 18 and 19: Śāradā, the Glory of the Umā-Maheśvara Vrata
Śāradā was widowed on her wedding day. The blind muni Dhruva taught her the Umā-Maheśvara vrata. She kept it for one year, on the Ashṭamī (eighth) and Caturdaśī (fourteenth) days of both fortnights. On the night of the udyāpana (the closing rite of the vrata), Pārvatī herself appeared, gave Dhruva back his sight, and revealed that in a past life Śāradā had been Bhāminī. Her true husband in spirit, a merchant in the Pāṇḍya country, was made known. A union in a dream gave her a son, Śāradeya. A voice from the sky confirmed the wondrous pregnancy. They met at Gokarṇa. Śāradā became a satī and reached Śivaloka. The full method of the Umā-Maheśvara vrata is given, with the dhyāna (meditation form) of Śiva and Pārvatī, the maṇḍala, the arghya mantras, the homa and the udyāpana.
Chapter 20: Mahānandā the Gaṇikā, the Glory of Rudrāksha
Mahānandā, a gaṇikā of Nandigrāma, dressed her pet monkey and rooster in rudrāksha ornaments for her dance performances. A Vaiśya devotee of Śiva made a ratna-liṅga (a liṅga of jewels). A fire of māyā (illusion) broke out, the Vaiśya gave up his life, and Mahānandā resolved to follow him as a satī. Śiva then revealed himself: he had been the Vaiśya. Both were taken to Śivaloka. The monkey was reborn as Sudharmā, prince of Kāśmīra and son of King Bhadrasena, and the rooster as Tāraka, the minister’s son. The glory of rudrāksha is taught: the right numbers to wear, where on the body to wear them, the kinds of mukhī (faces) and their fruit, and the rule that wearing rudrāksha in one life brings a natural love for it in the next.
Chapter 21: The Glory of the Rudrādhyāya, and the Prince of Kāśmīra
The Rudrādhyāya (the Śrī Rudram or Namakam) came forth from the southern face of Brahmā. As it spread through the world, the nine pāpa-nāyakas (chiefs of wrongdoing) who served Yama were driven out. Yama complained to Brahmā, who sent Durmedhā (dull-mindedness) and Aśraddhā (lack of faith) into the world to block the spread of the Rudrādhyāya. In the story, Parāśara Ṛshi tells King Bhadrasena of Kāśmīra that his son Sudharmā will die in seven days. A thousand brāhmaṇas perform the śatarudrābhisheka (bathing of the liṅga with the Rudram) with a hundred kalaśas (water pots). On the seventh day Vīrabhadra comes from Kailāsa and defeats Mṛtyu. Citragupta changes his records from “twelve years” to “ten thousand years”.
Chapter 22: The Glory of Purāṇa-Śravaṇa, and the Conclusion
This is the final conclusion of the Brahmottara Khaṇḍa and of the whole Brahma Khaṇḍa. Sūta declares that listening to the Purāṇas (Purāṇa-śravaṇa) is the highest dharma for the Kali Yuga. He gives a full teaching on the qualifications of the paurāṇika (the one who tells the Purāṇa), on how the listener should behave, on what follows from listening without respect (a detailed table of 13 behaviours and their results), and on the wonderful fruits of listening with sincerity. The chain of results is: satkathā (hearing holy stories) leads to paścāttāpa (remorse), then vairāgya (detachment), then śuddha-manas (a pure mind), then dhyāna (meditation), and finally kaivalya (liberation).
Two stories show this. Vidura’s wife, a wrongdoer, heard a Purāṇa at Gokarṇa by chance and was freed. Vidura, who had become a piśāca (a restless spirit), heard the story of Śiva from Tumburu for seven days in the Vindhya forest and was freed. The Brahmottara Khaṇḍa ends with the closing words: “Thus the Brahmottara Khaṇḍa is complete, and thus the Brahma Khaṇḍa is complete.”
Sources
- Skanda Purāṇa, Brahma Khaṇḍa, Dharmāraṇya Khaṇḍa, Pūrvārdha (first half), Chapters 1 to 20
- Skanda Purāṇa, Brahma Khaṇḍa, Dharmāraṇya Khaṇḍa, Uttarārdha (Brahmottara Khaṇḍa), Chapters 1 to 22