Dāna-Dharma

Dāna means giving, and dāna-dharma is the sacred duty of giving. The Varāha Purāṇa praises it as the foremost of all good acts, and teaches that among all kinds of giving, anna-dāna (the gift of food) is the greatest. It then describes, in great detail, a series of “cow-gifts” (dhenu-dāna). These are models of a cow made from sacred substances such as sesame, water, jaggery or butter, which are offered to a worthy brāhmaṇa. Book 2 describes the first five of these (the pañca-dhenu), and Book 3 extends the series into a full dhenu-kalpa of fourteen kinds, from the guḍa-dhenu (jaggery cow) up to the supreme Kapilā-dhenu in eleven varieties. It ends with the Brahmāṇḍa-dāna, the gift of a golden universe. In the same closing section the Purāṇa also gives the line of teachers who passed down the Varāha Saṃhitā, and the names of the eighteen Mahāpurāṇas.

Many other Purāṇas teach about dāna too. Also gathered below are the teachings of the Agni Purāṇa, the Bhaviṣya Purāṇa, the Garuḍa Purāṇa, the Padma Purāṇa and the Kaumārika Khaṇḍa of the Skanda Purāṇa, which explain how to give, when to give, to whom, and what makes a gift bear fruit.

Anna-Dāna: The Greatest Gift

The Varāha Purāṇa teaches dāna-dharma through the story of King Śveta of Ilāvṛta varṣa, as told to him by the great ṛṣi Vasiṣṭha. Śveta was a mighty ruler who had conquered the whole earth and performed many yajñas (sacred fire offerings). He gave cows, elephants, gold coins, silver objects, jewels, garments and great gifts to brāhmaṇas. But he never gave anna (food) or water, thinking them small things.

When Śveta died and reached svarga (the heavenly world), he suffered terrible hunger and had to gnaw on the bones of his own former body. He met Vasiṣṭha in that realm of svarga and told him of his suffering. Vasiṣṭha replied:

“Among all dānas, anna-dāna is the most excellent. It is from anna that all living beings are born; it is from anna that they grow. Therefore give anna with all effort, O king.”

A similar story is told of King Vinītāśva. He performed the sarvamedha yajña and gave rich gifts but held back anna, and he too suffered hunger after death. The teaching is plain: however grand the ritual or the gift, holding back the gift of food leaves a gap that becomes hunger in later lives.

The Five Sacred Cow-Gifts (Pañca-Dhenu)

Hotā, the purohita (family priest) of King Vinītāśva, taught that there are five sacred “dhenu” (cow) gifts that can remove the suffering of a soul who failed to give food.

1. Tila-Dhenu (Sesame Cow)

The tila-dhenu is made like this:

• Sixteen prasthas of sesame form the body (four kuḍavas make one prastha); one quarter of that amount forms the calf, placed beside it.
• Limbs: sugarcane sticks for legs; flowers for teeth; gandha (fragrance) for the nose; jaggery for the tongue; a garland on the tail; decorated with bells.
• Horns: of gold.
• Hooves: of bronze.
• Feet: of silver.
• Covering: a black deerskin as its garment.
• All ornaments and a garland of all herbs are added.
• The cow is blessed with a mantra and given to a qualified brāhmaṇa.

Mantra: “O tila-dhenu! I am offering you to this dvija (twice-born). May food, drink, and all rasas come to me through your grace. Protect us from all directions.”

The receiver speaks to the cow: “O tila-dhenu! Namaskāra to you. With great bhakti I receive you for my household. Honour my desires and protect me.”

Fruit: the giver gains all that he desires. The Purāṇa says this gift can lead to Viṣṇu-loka (the world of Viṣṇu).

2. Jala-Dhenu (Water Cow)

The jala-dhenu is made like this:

• On an auspicious day, a maṇḍala (sacred diagram) is drawn on the ground with gomaya (cow-dung), and a cow-hide is laid on it. In the centre is placed a pūrṇa-kumbha (a full pot) of fragrant water mixed with camphor, aguru (aloe-wood) and sandal.
• A pot one quarter the size forms the calf, placed beside it.
• Four smaller vessels are set in the four directions, holding (1) ghee, (2) curds, (3) honey and (4) sugar.
• The cow’s form: a golden face; horns of black aguru; leaves for ears; pearls for eyes; red hindquarters; a bronze vessel; darbha grass for hair; a rope for the tail; dark ornaments and bells.
• A garland hangs at the dewlap. The face is of jaggery; the teeth of pearl-shell; the tongue of sugar; the udder of butter; the legs of sugarcane. All ornaments are added, with a black deerskin as its covering.

The jala-dhenu is given to a brāhmaṇa who is a śrotriya (one who has studied the Vedas to the end), a sādhu (good person), of sādācāra (good conduct), an āhitāgni (one who keeps the sacred fires), advanced in tapas and in age, and with a family to support.

Fasting: the giver keeps one day taking only water and one day taking only milk. The receiver also keeps a similar discipline for three nights.

Fruit: the giver, the helper, and the receiving brāhmaṇa all rise above all pāpa (wrongdoing) and reach Viṣṇu-loka. Even those guilty of brahma-hatyā (killing a brāhmaṇa), of killing a cow, or of wronging the guru’s wife are freed by this gift. The merit equals that of an Aśvamedha yajña (the great horse sacrifice). The giver’s departed ancestors, even if they are in naraka (the lower worlds of suffering), rise to svarga.

3. Rasa-Dhenu (Sweet-Juice Cow)

The rasa-dhenu is made from sugarcane juice:

• A black deerskin and a darbhāsana (a seat of darbha grass) are placed on a cleaned floor. On them is set a ghaṭa (pot) filled with sugarcane juice, which forms the main body of the cow.
• The calf is made from one quarter of the amount.
• Legs: sugarcane sticks; horns: gold ornaments; tail: cloth; udder: ghee; dewlap: a flower garland; face: sugar; tongue: sugar; teeth: fruits; hindquarters: copper; hair: flowers; eyes: pearls. Seven kinds of grain and fine fragrances are added.
• Four vessels of jaggery are placed in the four directions.

It is given to the same kind of qualified brāhmaṇa. Both giver and receiver fast for one day, taking only juice.

Fruit: the merit of drinking soma and of all yajñas together. Those who witness the gift reach parama-gati (the highest goal). The giver saves twenty-one generations, ten before him, ten after him, and himself. All reach the highest goal and do not return from svarga.

4–5. Gavī-Dhenu and Bhū-Dhenu

These two complete the first set of five. The gavī-dhenu (also called anna-dhenu, the grain cow) is a cow-form made of grain, given to a brāhmaṇa with mantras that call on Bhūdevī (the devī of the earth) to bless the giver with children and prosperity. The bhū-dhenu is a gold or silver image of Bhūdevī given to a brāhmaṇa with the prescribed Bhū-dvādaśī vrata (a sacred vow kept on the twelfth lunar day). This gift brings children and gathers the same merit as giving actual land.

The Dhenu-Kalpa Series (Book 3, Chapters 101–111)

Book 3 of the Varāha Purāṇa extends the teaching of cow-gifts into a full dhenu-kalpa, a complete series of cow-gifts. Each is made from a different sacred substance, and each brings its own merit in proportion to the purity and rarity of what is offered. These nine new dhenus follow the same pattern as the first five: a cow-form made of the substance, given to a qualified brāhmaṇa on the proper tithi (lunar day) with the prescribed mantras.

The Kapilā-Dhenu: The Greatest Cow-Gift (Chapters 110–111)

Among all cow-gifts, the Varāha Purāṇa declares the Kapilā-dhenu (the gift of a brown or tawny cow) to be the greatest. Chapters 110–111 describe eleven varieties of the Kapilā-dhenu, each meant for a different giver’s situation and each bringing the highest merit.

The merit of the Kapilā-dhenu is said to equal that of bhū-dāna (the gift of land), which the Purāṇa elsewhere names as one of the greatest possible gifts. Giving a Kapilā-dhenu frees all the giver’s generations and speeds the giver towards liberation. It is the crown of the whole dhenu-kalpa series.

Brahmāṇḍa-Dāna: The Gift of a Golden Universe (Chapter 111)

At the end of the dhenu-kalpa section, the Varāha Purāṇa describes the Brahmāṇḍa-dāna, the gift of a golden universe. A golden water-pot (hema-kumbha) is made in the shape of the brahmāṇḍa (cosmic egg), decorated with pictures of all the worlds, and offered to a qualified brāhmaṇa. It is a symbolic offering of the whole of creation to Paramātmā.

The merit of this gift is said to be beyond counting. Offering the whole universe back to its source, even in symbol, contains and goes beyond all other gifts.

The Passing Down of the Varāha Saṃhitā and the Eighteen Mahāpurāṇas (Chapter 111)

Chapter 111 ends with the paramparā (line of teachers) through which the Varāha Saṃhitā was handed down:

Parameśvara → Brahmā → Pulastya → Bhārgava → Ugra → Muni → Vyāsa → Romaharṣaṇa → Śaunaka

This line places the Varāha Purāṇa in the tradition of Vyāsa, passed through Romaharṣaṇa to the ṛṣi Śaunaka and the gathering of ṛṣis at Naimiṣāraṇya.

The same chapter lists the eighteen Mahāpurāṇas:

The Qualified Receiver

The brāhmaṇa who receives any of these cow-gifts must be:

• One who has studied the Vedas completely (śrotriya, veda-vidvān)
• An āhitāgni (one who keeps the sacred fires burning at home always)
• One who knows the Purāṇas
• Of good conduct (sādācāra) and intelligent
• Living with a family (sakuṭumba)
• Above all, one who is learned yet poor (daridra, without plenty)

The receiving brāhmaṇa also keeps the prescribed fast. The merit goes equally to the giver, the helper and the receiver.

Dāna in the Agni Purāṇa

In the Agni Purāṇa, through Agni’s words to Vasiṣṭha and Puṣkara’s teaching to Paraśurāma, dāna-dharma is taught fully and in order across several chapters. It covers what dāna is, the sixteen great gifts, the many kinds of gifts, gifts made for particular wishes, the supreme gift of land, and the glory of giving as the highest dharma.

Vrata-Dāna-Samuccaya (Chapter 208)

Agni teaches Vasiṣṭha that vratas (sacred vows) and dānas should be kept on auspicious tithis (lunar days), vāras (weekdays), nakṣatras (lunar stars), yogas, rāśis (zodiac signs), and at the times of solar and lunar eclipses. The presiding deva over all such gifts and times is Śrī Mahāviṣṇu; Sūrya, Śiva, Brahmā and Lakṣmī are all his vibhūtis (glorious forms). So gifts made with Viṣṇu at their centre are sarva-manoratha-prada, fulfilling every wish. The standard saṅkalpa (formal statement of intention) for a gift names the giver’s family line and the receiver’s gotra (clan), and states the purpose: to calm pāpa, to increase āyus (long life) and ārogya (health), to raise the family, to gain dharma, artha (wealth) and kāma (fulfilment of desire), and finally mokṣa (liberation) from saṃsāra. One who recites this teaching daily gains bhukti (enjoyment) and mukti (liberation).

Dāna-Paribhāṣā: The Rules of Giving (Chapter 209)

The Agni Purāṇa divides dāna into two broad kinds: iṣṭa and pūrta. Pūrta includes building tanks, wells, ponds, temples and anna-satras (free kitchens): public works of service, which lead to mukti. Iṣṭa includes agnihotra (the daily fire offering), satya-bhāṣaṇa (speaking the truth), svādhyāya (study of scripture), atithi-satkāra (honouring guests) and bali-vaiśvadeva (daily food offerings), which lead to svarga. Gifts made at graha-saṃkrānti (when a planet changes sign), on dvādaśī (the twelfth lunar day) and on similar tithis are counted as pūrta and bring the fruit of svarga.

A gift made at the right deśa, kāla and pātra (place, time and receiver) brings fruit a crore times over. The most auspicious times are the twelve saṃkrāntis (the sun’s entries into the signs): the two ayanas (solstices), the six ṣaḍaśīti-mukha saṃkrāntis and the four viṣṇupada saṃkrāntis. Other holy times include vyatīpāta, the start of a manvantara, the junctions of the yugas, special meetings of planets and nakṣatras, and the eight aṣṭakā-śrāddha days.

The dātā (giver) must face east, and the pratigrāhaka (receiver) must face north. A gift made in the giver’s name and the receiver’s name is valid. To promise a gift in words and then take it back destroys a hundred generations. The pātra, the worthy receiver, must be jñāna-śīla-sadguṇa-sampanna (rich in knowledge, character and good qualities) and must not harm others. A gift to one’s mother brings a hundredfold merit, to one’s father a thousandfold, and to a son or brother merit without end. Gifts to wrongdoers bear no fruit at all.

As for what is given: wealth earned through vidyā (learning), śaurya (bravery) or tapas, or received as a gift from a guru or yajamāna (sponsor of a yajña), is not counted as dāna in the strict sense. Wealth gained through honest trade, farming or service is sāttvika (pure) and brings pure fruit. Wealth gained through gambling or deceit is tāmasika (dark). The brāhmaṇa who receives a gift should recite the Gāyatrī while accepting it and speak the name of the presiding devatā.

Ṣoḍaśa-Mahādāna: The Sixteen Great Gifts (Chapter 210)

The Agni Purāṇa lists the great gifts (ṣoḍaśa-mahādāna, “sixteen great gifts”) that bring both bhukti and mukti:

1. Tulā-puruṣa-dāna: not named outright in this chapter, but implied in the series
2. Hiraṇya-garbha: the gift of a golden womb
3. Brahmāṇḍa: the gift of the cosmic egg in gold
4. Kalpa-vṛkṣa: a wish-fulfilling tree made of gold (one thousand palas), with roots, trunk, leaves, flowers and fruits, given to five brāhmaṇas; the giver lives in Brahma-loka with his ancestors
5. Sahasra-go-dāna: the gift of a thousand cows; the giver reaches Alakāpurī, the city of Kubera
6. Svarṇa-kāmadhenu: a golden wish-granting cow; the giver gains all that he desires
7. Svarṇa-nirmita-aśva: a golden horse, given with a golden chariot
8. Hara-pañcaka: five items linked with Śiva
9. Bhū-dāna: the gift of land (described in Chapter 213)
10. Viśva-cakra: a silver wheel, blessed with ritual and given
11. Kalpalatā: a wish-fulfilling creeper in gold
12. Sapta-sāgara: models of the seven oceans in ritual form
13. Ratna-dhenu: a cow set with gems
14. Jala-pūrṇa-kumbha: a pot filled with blessed water

The chapter also describes in detail the ten daśa-dhenu (ten cow-gifts): guḍa-dhenu (jaggery), ghṛta-dhenu (ghee), tila-dhenu (sesame), jala-dhenu (water), kṣīra-dhenu (milk), madhu-dhenu (honey), śarkarā-dhenu (sugar), dadhi-dhenu (curd), rasa-dhenu (juice) and kṛṣṇājina-dhenu (black deerskin). For each liquid cow, kumbhas (pots) filled with that substance stand in for the cow. The cow is given golden horns, silver hooves and pearl eyes, and the prescribed mantras call on the cow as the form of all devīs: Rudrāṇī, Lakṣmī, Sāvitrī and the Śakti of all the lokapālas (guardians of the worlds).

The meru-dānas (mountain-gifts shaped like Mount Meru) are also counted among the great gifts. A dhānya-meru (grain mountain) of one thousand droṇas is the highest. A guḍa-parvata (jaggery mountain) of ten bhāras, a svarṇa-meru (gold mountain) of one thousand palas, a rajata-meru (silver mountain), a ghṛta-parvata (ghee mountain) and a tila-meru (sesame mountain) are among the ten meru forms. Each meru is set out with twelve surrounding mountains in the pattern of the cosmic Meru, placed on a twelve-petalled lotus, with Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Maheśvara seated on its peaks, and given to a brāhmaṇa with the proper saṅkalpa. The reward of a meru-dāna is to live in Viṣṇu-loka, Indra-loka or Brahma-loka for time beyond measure.

Nānā-Dāna: Many Kinds of Gifts (Chapter 211)

Chapter 211 lists many gifts and their phala (fruits):

• Go-dāna (giving cows): one who has ten cows gives one; one who has a hundred gives ten; one who has a thousand gives a hundred; the merit is the same. Giving a hundred cows frees one from naraka; giving a thousand cows brings the giver to Alakāpurī.
• Mahiṣī-dāna (giving a buffalo) brings saubhāgya (good fortune). Vṛṣabha-dāna (giving a bull) brings svarga.
• Saṃyukta-hala-paṅkti (ten ploughs joined with golden bands, each yoked with bulls): the giver is honoured in svarga.
• Bhūmi-dāna (giving land): one gocarma (ten nivartanas) of land frees one from all pāpa. Land given with a black deerskin, a cow and gold brings brahma-sāyujya (union with Brahman).
• Tila-pātra (a pot of sesame with honey), given with a fine bed, brings bhukti and mukti.
• Svarṇa-pratimā (a golden image of oneself) brings svarga. Gṛha-dāna (giving a house) brings enjoyment and mokṣa.
• Vastra-dāna (giving cloth) brings long life, health and svarga that never ends. Dhānya-dāna (giving grain) brings svarga.
• Anna-dāna is declared beyond compare: “nāsti anna-samaṃ dānam”, “there is no gift equal to food.” An elephant, horse, chariot or servant cannot match even a sixteenth part of the gift of food.
• Vidyā-dāna (the gift of knowledge) equals the gift of cows and the gift of land. Teaching brahma-jñāna (knowledge of Brahman) to one worthy student equals giving away the whole earth with its seven continents. Reciting the Purāṇas in temples of Śiva, Viṣṇu and Sūrya brings the fruit of all gifts. Vidyā is the kāmadhenu (wish-fulfilling cow); vidyā is the true eye.
• Kanyā-dāna (giving a daughter in marriage) frees twenty-one generations from naraka, and the giver reaches Brahma-loka. Gaja-dāna (giving an elephant) brings svarga. Aśva-dāna (giving a horse) brings health and good fortune. Dāsī-dāna (giving a maidservant) to learned brāhmaṇas brings a home in the world of the apsarās.
• Pūrta-karma, the building of tanks, wells, parks and travellers’ rest-houses, brings mukti. Pūjā and service to the sacred images of the devatās, with gandha (fragrance), puṣpa (flowers), dhūpa (incense), dīpa (lamps), naivedya (food offerings) and pradakṣiṇā (walking around the mūrti), bring bhukti and mukti.

Kāmya-Dāna and Meru-Dāna (Chapter 212)

Gifts made in each month of the year to fulfil particular wishes are called kāmya-dāna:

The twelve meru-dānas are described in full: ratna-meru (gems), svarṇa-meru (gold), rajata-meru (silver), bhūmi-meru (an eighth part of a region, in gold), hasti-meru (twelve elephants standing for the twelve surrounding mountains), aśva-meru (fifteen horses), go-meru (cows), vastra-meru (a heap of silk), ghṛta-parvata (five thousand palas of ghee), khaṇḍa-meru (crystal sugar), dhānya-meru (five puṭis of grain) and tila-meru (sesame). Each is blessed with Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Maheśvara seated at its peaks. Pūjā is performed facing Bhagavān Viṣṇu, and it is given with the formal saṅkalpa for enjoyment and mokṣa. The tila-meru is given with this mantra: “Viṣṇu-svarūpāya tila-meruve namaḥ: may I, along with my pitṛs, reach Śrī Mahāviṣṇu’s presence, free from pāpa.”

Pṛthvī-Dāna: The Gift of the Earth (Chapter 213)

The pṛthvī-dāna (earth gift) is described in three grades. The highest is a golden model of the whole earth, one hundred crore yojanas wide, with all seven dvīpas (island-continents) and their seas, weighing five bhāras. The middle grade is half of that, and the lowest is one third. The model includes a kūrma (tortoise) and a kamala (lotus) as its base. The giver reaches Brahma-loka with the generations of his ancestors for a very long time.

This chapter also describes the kalpavṛkṣa-dāna (a golden wish-fulfilling tree with five branches, made from a thousand palas of gold) and the kāmadhenu-dāna (a golden cow of five hundred palas). Both are given to five brāhmaṇas facing Viṣṇu and bring a home in Brahma-loka. The chapter ends with the gifts of a cow, land and a daughter in marriage and all their merits. Its principle is: “sarvaṃ dātā labhe”, the one who gives land truly gains everything.

Dāna-Māhātmya: The Glory of Giving (Chapter 272)

In Chapter 272, Puṣkara reveals the great glory of purāṇa-dāna, the gift of a written copy of a Purāṇa, as the highest form of vidyā-dāna (the gift of knowledge). Puṣkara tells Paraśurāma to copy a Purāṇa and give it to a brāhmaṇa together with a jala-dhenu (water cow). Each of the eighteen Mahāpurāṇas is to be given in a particular month with a particular accompanying gift:

When the Mahābhārata is recited, the end of each parva (book) must be marked by honouring the paurāṇika (the reciter) with vastra (cloth), gandha (fragrance) and mālya (garlands), feeding brāhmaṇas with pāyasa (sweet rice), and giving cows, land, villages and gold. The reciter’s monthly fee is two to three māṣas of gold. “One who gifts itihāsas and purāṇas attains āyus, ārogya, svarga, and mokṣa.”

The Great Gifts in the Bhaviṣya Purāṇa (Uttara Parva)

The Uttara Parva of the Bhaviṣya Purāṇa (Chapters 175–204) gives the fullest and most orderly teaching in the Purāṇas on the mahā-dānas, the great gifts whose merit equals or goes beyond every other religious act. Śrī Kṛṣṇa tells it to Yudhiṣṭhira, within the frame of Pulastya’s teaching to Priyavrata. This section is the main reference for the six chief great gifts and the Daśaparvata, the ten mountain-gifts.

The Six Chief Great Gifts

1. Tulāpuruṣa Dāna (Chapter 175): the gift of gold exactly equal to the giver’s own body weight. A tulā (scale) is built with four upright posts. The giver sits in one pan while gold is heaped in the other until they balance. The gold is then given to a vidyāvān (learned) brāhmaṇa. It is best done on Kārtika Paurṇamī (the full moon of Kārtika), at an ayana-saṃkrānti (solstice), at the viṣuva yoga (equinox), or at a solar or lunar eclipse. The giver lives in Brahmaloka for as many years as there are specks of dust in the gold given, and his ancestors are freed from naraka.

2. Hiraṇyagarbha Dāna (Chapter 176): a golden vessel in the shape of a cosmic womb, weighing twenty to one thousand palas, filled with golden sesame seeds, gems and fragrances. It is given to a śrotriya brāhmaṇa after a full Vedic havana (fire offering) and pañcāmṛta pūjā (pūjā with five sacred liquids). Its fruit is the destruction of all three kinds of pāpa (of body, mind and speech) and a home in Brahmaloka for thirty-six manvantaras.

3. Brahmāṇḍa Dāna (Chapter 177): a golden model of the whole universe, showing all fourteen worlds, including Jambudvīpa with Mount Meru, all seven dvīpas, the seven pātālas (lower worlds) and the seven higher worlds, made by a skilled craftsman and given to a brāhmaṇa. The main story told here is that of King Sudyumna. After three thousand years of righteous rule he reached Brahmaloka, but could not enjoy it because he had never given dāna. Brahmā sent him back to perform the Brahmāṇḍa dāna. After he did so, he returned and enjoyed Brahmaloka fully.

4. Kalpavṛkṣa Dāna (Chapters 178–179): a gold or silver wish-fulfilling tree (kalpavṛkṣa) with five branches bearing images of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, Sūrya and Rati with Manmatha. It is surrounded by four smaller trees in the four directions: Santāna in the east, Mandāra in the south, Pārijāta in the west and Haricandana in the north. It is given in a maṇḍapa (pavilion) ten cubits wide after an all-night utsava (festival). The giver goes to Indraloka on a chariot of the sun. In the Kalpalatā variant (ten golden creepers given to ten brāhmaṇas), the giver lives in Indraloka for a whole manvantara. Śiva taught this gift specially to Pārvatī, for couples without children who hope for a child.

5. Kālapuruṣa Dāna (Chapters 181–190): a golden image of Kālapuruṣa (the cosmic Person of Time), seated on a throne surrounded by the twelve rāśis (zodiac signs), the nine grahas (planets) and the nakṣatras, weighing twenty to one thousand palas. It is given in a grand pavilion after a havana performed by brāhmaṇas of four Vedic śākhās (branches). The giver’s whole family line over seven generations is freed, and he lives in the highest worlds for one full kalpa. The Daśadānas (ten secondary great gifts) are prescribed to go with this great gift: go-dāna (cow), bhūmi-dāna (land), svarṇa-dāna (gold), tilaśaila (sesame mountain), ghṛtaparvata (ghee mountain), lavaṇācala (salt mountain), dhānyaśaila (grain mountain), guḍaparvata (jaggery mountain), kārpāsaśaila (cotton mountain) and rajatācala (silver mountain).

6. Mahāparvata Dānas, the Ten Mountain-Gifts (Chapters 195–204): ten gifts shaped like mountains, each made from a different sacred substance: grain, salt, jaggery, gold, sesame, cotton, ghee, precious gems, silver and crystal sugar. Each receives pūjā with a havana and given to brāhmaṇas with the proper mantras. Each brings its own fruit, matching the quality of the substance offered.

The Right Times for the Great Gifts

The Uttara Parva names the most auspicious times for all the great gifts: the ayana-saṃkrāntis (the two solstices), viṣuva (the equinoxes), solar and lunar eclipses, Kārtika Paurṇamī, and the viṣṇupada saṃkrāntis. Giving at these times multiplies the merit a crore times.

The Qualified Receiver

The brāhmaṇa who receives a great gift must be a vidyāvān (learned in the Vedas), of proper gotra and character, keeping the sacred fires, of good conduct, and, importantly, living in poverty or real need, since the gift flows most powerfully to those who truly need it. After receiving, the brāhmaṇa recites the words of blessing and prays that the giver’s merit be complete.

The Ten Gifts at the Time of Death: Garuḍa Purāṇa, Dharma Khaṇḍa (Chapters 4, 34)

The Dharma Khaṇḍa of the Garuḍa Purāṇa gives a list of ten gifts that matter most in antya-karma, the rites around death. These gifts are made when death is near or at the time of death, to help the preta (the departed soul) on the Yama-mārga, the road to the world of Yama. These are the daśa-dānas (ten gifts):

1. Go-dāna (a cow): the greatest of all gifts; the cow carries the soul across the Vaitaraṇī river
2. Bhūmi-dāna (land): the most powerful after the gift of a cow
3. Tila-dāna (sesame): tila is said to have its own special power to destroy pāpa
4. Hiraṇya-dāna (gold)
5. Ājya-dāna (ghee)
6. Vāsa-dāna (clothing)
7. Dhānya-dāna (grain)
8. Guḍa-dāna (jaggery)
9. Rajata-dāna (silver)
10. Lavaṇa-dāna (salt)

In the setting of the death rites, each gift means something a little different from ordinary giving. Each is understood to give the departed soul a matching help on the road to Yama: the cow gives transport, the gold gives passage through hard places, the grain gives food, and so on.

Aṣṭa-Pada-Dāna: Eight Further Gifts

Besides the ten, the Dharma Khaṇḍa prescribes eight further gifts to equip the departing soul:

1. Śayyā: a complete bed with mattress and pillow
2. Chatra: an umbrella, for shelter on the road
3. Pādukā: footwear
4. Dīpa: a lamp, for the dark stretches of the road to Yama
5. Tāmra-pātra: a bronze vessel
6. Udaka-pātra: a water vessel
7. Vastra: a robe
8. Āsana: a seat

Śayyā-Dāna: The Gift of a Bed (Chapter 34)

Chapter 34 gives a detailed teaching on the śayyā-dāna (gift of a bed) as one of the most important of these further gifts. A complete bed, with a wooden frame, a cotton mattress, a silk or cotton sheet, a pillow stuffed with cotton or fragrant materials, and a fine blanket, is given to a brāhmaṇa in the name of the departed. This gift is understood to give the departed soul the bed it will rest on before it reaches Yamapura (the city of Yama), in place of the beds of the living household that it can no longer use. The bed is given with the mantra: “May this bed be to you what the śeṣa-śayyā is to Bhagavān Viṣṇu: may you rest in peace and arrive safely at your destination.”

The Teaching on Dāna in the Padma Purāṇa (Brahma Khaṇḍa)

The Brahma Khaṇḍa of the Padma Mahā Purāṇa gives a short but full teaching on dāna-dharma in Chapter 24, listing the fruit of each gift in order of greatness.

Bhūmi-dāna (the gift of land) is declared the greatest gift. One who gives land with a growing crop to a brāhmaṇa enjoys Viṣṇu’s svarga for the reigns of fourteen Indras, then returns as a great emperor, and in the end reaches Viṣṇu’s home. Both the giver and the receiver of land go to svarga. For destroying or seizing land belonging to a devatā or a brāhmaṇa, there is no atonement for hundreds of crores of kalpas.

The gift of a śālagrāma stands alone as the greatest of movable gifts. One gains a crore times more merit by giving a śālagrāma stone than by giving gold, jewels or valuables equal to one’s own weight. Giving a śālagrāma equals giving the earth with all its mountains, groves and forests. Giving it to a brāhmaṇa equals giving the fourteen worlds.

Food and water are declared the best of all gifts: “Of all the gifts, the gift of food or water is declared to be the best by all ṛṣis knowing the truth.” Food and water are equal: “as is food, so is water.” The giver of food is the giver of life, and so gains the fruit of all gifts. As many kinds of food as one gives, so many pāpas as grave as the killing of a brāhmaṇa are destroyed.

Other gifts, in descending order of merit, are:

• A cow: equals giving the earth with its seven islands
• A bull: brings Śiva’s world
• Gold: brings a crore members of the family to Viṣṇu’s home
• Silver: brings the world of the Moon, with its nectar
• Gems: bring svarga
• A daughter in proper marriage: brings Brahmā’s home, with no rebirth
• Sandals or an umbrella: bring Indra’s city for four kalpas
• Garments: bring a long stay in svarga
• Fruits, vegetables, ghee, curd, milk, sandal and flowers
• A bed: brings Brahmā’s home
• A lamp or seat: brings svarga surrounded by lamps
• Betel leaf: brings the enjoyment of the whole earth
• Knowledge: brings nearness to Viṣṇu for three hundred yugas
• Books: for every letter, the merit of giving a crore tawny cows

The teaching behind this: “Giving gifts is superior even to austerities. Wealth should be accumulated with effort and spent in giving. Those men who by repeatedly giving become poor should not be regarded as poor; they are great lords in the human world.” Those who only guard their wealth, without giving it or enjoying it, are the truly poor, and at death they leave with a sigh of grief.

The Kaumārika Khaṇḍa: The Deeper Meaning of Dāna

The Kaumārika Khaṇḍa of the Skanda Mahā Purāṇa gives two linked teachings on dāna-dharma. Together they form one of the most careful and complete classifications of giving in all the Purāṇas. Nārada tells both teachings to Arjuna at the Mahīsāgara Saṅgama (the meeting of the Mahī river with the sea).

Brahmā’s Court: Dāna and Devotion to Śiva as Twin Pillars

In Brahmā’s court, a divine reporter named Suśravas told the story of Kātyāyana Muni. Kātyāyana had performed tapas standing on one leg for a hundred years, seeking to know which spiritual path was highest among satya (truth), tapas, śauca (purity), sāṃkhya, yoga, kṣamā (forgiveness) and others. A divine voice sent him to Sārasvata Muni on the bank of the Pārvatī river. Sārasvata, the son of Devī Sarasvatī herself, gave him the heart of her teaching:

This whole world has birth and death as its nature, like shadows, lasting only as long as the blink of an eye. Wealth, life, youth and pleasures are all as unsteady as the moon’s reflection in water. Knowing this, one should take refuge in Sthāṇu-dāna (giving to Śiva). Dāna and bhakti to Śiva are the twin pillars of liberation. A human birth in Bhārata is the finest vehicle, won through great puṇya (merit), and to waste it without striving for liberation is to betray oneself.

Great givers are named as examples:

• Śibi of the Auśīnara line, who gave his own flesh for a brāhmaṇa
• Pravardhana of Kāśī, who gave both his eyes and won lasting kīrti (fame)
• Videha Rāja, who gave his āśrama
• Paraśurāma, who gave the whole earth
• Gaya, who gave whole cities to brāhmaṇas
• Rājarṣi Sahasrajit, who gave up his own life for brāhmaṇas and reached the highest worlds

Those who make offerings to Śiva (Sthāṇu-dāna) with a calm mind (śānta-citta) and controlled senses (jitendriya) live forever in Rudraloka. Brahmā himself confirmed: “Dāna is the kavaca (armour) of yajñas. All living beings in the world take refuge in the dātā (giver).”

The Three Kinds of Wealth

After this gathering, Nārada thought about how he could practise dāna, since he owned no ordinary wealth, only a loincloth and a staff. He remembered the teaching on the three kinds of dravya (wealth):

• Śukla-dravya (white or pure wealth): gained through knowledge of the Vedas, from a student, or as a bride-gift (kanyā). This is the purest wealth.
• Citra-dravya (mixed wealth): gained through trade, farming, service or begging. This is middling.
• Kṛṣṇa-dravya (dark wealth): gained through sāhasa (violence or recklessness), gambling, theft or deceit. This is the lowest.

Only pure wealth, given with śraddhā (faith) in a proper place to a proper receiver, lets the giver become a deva. Mixed wealth given as dāna keeps the giver at the human level. Dark wealth given as dāna leads to rebirth as an animal. With this reasoning, Nārada decided that his vidyā (knowledge) counted as pure wealth. To exchange it for land for the brāhmaṇas of Kalāpagrāma would not be pratigraha (accepting a gift) but a fair exchange of knowledge for its proper fee. So he set out to find Dharmavarmā.

The Verse from the Sky: A Complete Plan of Giving

King Dharmavarmā of Saurāṣṭra had performed tapas for many years, seeking to understand the true nature of dāna. An ākāśavāṇī (a voice from the sky) gave him a single, tightly packed śloka (verse):

“Two hetus, six adhiṣṭhānas, six aṅgas, two phalas, four prakāras, three vidhis, three nāśas: this is dāna.”

That is: two causes, six foundations, six parts, two fruits, four kinds, three grades and three ways of destruction. No further explanation was given. Hundreds of brāhmaṇa scholars came and failed to understand it. Then Nārada appeared as an old brāhmaṇa and explained each part in order.

The Two Hetus (Causes)

Without these two causes, a gift bears no fruit: śraddhā (faith) and śakti (ability).

Śraddhā itself is of three kinds. Sāttvika-śraddhā (pure faith) offers pūjā to the devatās. Rājasika-śraddhā (passionate faith) offers pūjā to yakṣas and rākṣasas. Tāmasika-śraddhā (dark faith) offers pūjā to bhūtas, pretas and piśācas (restless spirits). Even munis who owned nothing reached svarga through dāna done with śraddhā, so the cause lies within, not in material things.

Śakti means giving within one’s real means. Giving recklessly beyond one’s ability, neglecting those who depend on oneself in order to give to strangers, is adharma and not dāna.

Nine things must never be given:

1. What is jointly owned
2. A bequest
3. Another’s property held in trust
4. A pledge
5. One’s wife
6. A promised vision
7. Food set aside for a guest (anvāhita)
8. Hidden treasure
9. The whole inheritance when there are heirs

The Six Adhiṣṭhānas (Foundations of Motive)

The six foundations are the range of motives from which a gift can flow:

1. Dharma-dāna: given purely from a sense of dharma, expecting nothing in return; the highest
2. Artha-dāna: given from greed, to draw wealth out of another’s wish for status
3. Kāma-dāna: given to an unworthy person out of affection or hope of future gain
4. Hrī-dāna (giving from shame): a public promise kept to avoid dishonour, or returning what was received
5. Harṣa-dāna: given joyfully on seeing a loved one or hearing good news
6. Bhaya-dāna: given out of fear of harm, or as payment for harm

The Six Aṅgas (Parts)

A true gift has six parts:

1. Dātā, the giver: healthy, following dharma, free of addiction, pure, and earning a pure living
2. Pratigrahītā, the receiver: a brāhmaṇa pure in manas (mind), vāk (speech) and kāya (body), of small means, kind, and without defect of body or birth
3. Śuddhi, purity of the act: meeting the receiver with a welcoming face, free of envy
4. Deyam, the thing given: it must harm no one, be gained without causing sorrow, and be earned by one’s own effort
5. Dharma-sahitam, joined with dharma: so that even a small gift given for the sake of dharma is counted in full
6. Deśa-kāla, place and time: the most meritorious are those settings where rare things are given in a way that follows dharma

The Two Phalas (Fruits)

A gift brings two different kinds of fruit. Pāra-phala (fruit in the next world) comes when the gift is given to an uttama (worthy, superior) receiver; the merit returns to the giver in the world beyond. Iha-phala (fruit in this world) comes when the gift is given to a lesser or unworthy receiver.

The Four Prakāras (Kinds)

1. Dhruva-dāna (lasting gifts): lasting works such as wells, gardens, tanks, forests, maṭhas (monasteries), springs, homes and lands given to brāhmaṇas. They keep producing merit as long as they stand.
2. Trika-dāna: daily giving at the three sandhyās (the junctions of dawn, noon and dusk).
3. Kāmya-dāna: giving for a particular wish, such as children, victory or prosperity.
4. Naimittika-dāna: occasional giving, prompted by particular circumstances. It has three kinds: kālāpekṣa (depending on a holy time or festival), kriyāpekṣa (depending on a ritual occasion) and guṇāpekṣa (depending on a special quality of the receiver).

The Three Vidhis (Grades)

• Uttama (highest): homes, prāsādas (mansions), vidyā (knowledge), bhūmi (land), cows, wells, prāṇa-dāna (saving a life) and gold
• Madhyama (middling): food, gardens, clothing and vehicles
• Adhama (lowest): footwear, umbrellas, vessels, curds, honey, seats, lamps, wood and stones

The Three Nāśas (Ways the Fruit Is Destroyed)

Three states of mind destroy the fruit of even a true gift:

1. Āsura-dāna: regretting or grieving after giving, which wipes out all merit
2. Rākṣasa-dāna: giving without śraddhā, which is completely worthless
3. Paiśāca-dāna: giving while feeling burdened, or suffering after having given, which destroys the fruit of the gift

Dharmavarmā’s Gift of Land to Kalāpagrāma

Dharmavarmā, full of gratitude after hearing the whole explanation, declared that his birth was fulfilled and his tapas had borne fruit. Nārada then revealed who he was. Instead of the seven hundred crore cows and the gold that had been promised, he asked for seven gavyūtis (about twenty-eight miles) of land near the Mahīsāgara Saṅgama, for the brāhmaṇas of Kalāpagrāma to settle on and live from. Dharmavarmā granted it at once and promised to protect it forever. So the brāhmaṇas of Kalāpagrāma came to be settled near the holy meeting of the waters. In this way the teaching on dāna was tied directly to a real act of bhūmi-dāna (giving land) that served a sacred community.

Sources

• Varāha Mahā Purāṇa, Chapters 98–111
• Agni Mahā Purāṇa, Chapters 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213 and 272
• Bhaviṣya Purāṇa, Uttara Parva, Chapters 175–204
• Garuḍa Mahā Purāṇa, Dharma Khaṇḍa, Chapters 4 and 34
• Padma Mahā Purāṇa, Brahma Khaṇḍa, Chapter 24
• Skanda Mahā Purāṇa, Māheśvara Khaṇḍa, Kaumārika Khaṇḍa, Chapters 2 and 4