Kāvya-Śāstra

Kāvya means poetry or fine literature, and śāstra means a body of sacred teaching or science. Kāvya-śāstra is the full science of Sanskrit literature and the performing arts. It is set out in the Agni Purāṇa, in Chapters 337 to 347, where it is taught by Agni Deva.

It covers what kāvya is and its different kinds; the forms of drama and how a play is built; the nine rasas (flavours of feeling) and what gives rise to them; the four rītis (literary styles); classical dance and the art of abhinaya (expression); figures of sound (śabdālaṃkāra), figures of meaning (arthālaṃkāra) and figures that use both (śabdārtha-alaṃkāra); the excellences of poetry (kāvya-guṇa); and the faults to avoid (kāvya-dosha).

The High Place of Poetry

The Agni Purāṇa treats kāvya as the highest form of human speech, above both śāstra and itihāsa (sacred history). Śāstra gives first place to śabda (the word as rule). Itihāsa gives first place to artha (the meaning of events). Kāvya goes beyond both, because it uses three powers of language together, all in the service of rasa:

• abhidhā: the direct, literal meaning
• lakshaṇā: the indicated meaning
• vyañjanā: the suggested meaning

The text says that human birth is rare, and learning is rarer still. It then lists, from rare to rarest:

1. Kavitva: the gift of poetry, rarer than learning
2. Śakti: inborn creative power, rarer than kavitva
3. Vyutpatti: mastery of all fields of knowledge, rarer than śakti
4. Viveka: fine judgement, the rarest of all

This places the true kavi (poet) at the very peak of human achievement.

What Kāvya Is and Its Kinds (Chapter 337)

Kāvya is defined as a vākya (sentence or composition) that has clear alaṃkāras (figures of speech), has guṇas (excellences) and is free from doshas (faults). Kāvya comes from three sources: the Vedas, loka (the world of experience), and kāvya itself (the earlier tradition). A kāvya composed by someone who has perfected a mantra (a siddha-mantra practitioner) is called ayonija, “not born in the ordinary way”. Sanskrit is the proper language for the devas, while the three kinds of Prākṛta (spoken languages) suit human characters.

Three forms of kāvya: gadya (prose), padya (verse) and miśra (mixed).

Three forms of gadya (prose):

• Cūrṇaka: short, soft sentences
• Utkalikā-vṛtti: long compound words
• Vṛtta-gandhi: in between, carrying the “fragrance” of verse rhythm without being fully metrical

Five forms of prose kāvya: Ākhyāyikā, Kathā, Khaṇḍa-kathā, Parikathā and Kathānikā.

• The Ākhyāyikā praises the poet’s own family line. It gives vivid descriptions of abduction, battle, viraha (separation of lovers) and disaster. It uses the Vaidarbhī and other rītis, is divided into ucchvāsas (“breath” sections), and is mostly written in cūrṇaka prose.
• The Kathā is a story in which the poet briefly mentions his family line in verse and brings in a smaller story as a frame. It is divided into lambakas.

Nāṭaka-Nirūpaṇa: The Theory of Drama (Chapter 338)

The Agni Purāṇa gives a full system of dramatic forms. It names twenty-seven kinds of rūpaka (drama). The ten main ones are: Nāṭaka, Prakaraṇa, Ḍima, Īhāmṛga, Samavakāra, Prahasana, Vyāyoga, Bhāṇa, Vīthī and Aṅka. Besides these, the text names further forms: Troṭaka, Nāṭikā, Saṭṭaka, Śilpaka, Karṇa, Durmallikā, Prasthāna, Bhālikā, Bhāṇī, Goshṭhī, Hallīśaka, Kāvya, Śrīgadita, Nāṭya-rāsaka, Ullāpya and Preṅkhaṇa.

All rūpakas have two kinds of defining features: sāmānya-lakshaṇa (features shared by all) and viśesha-lakshaṇa (features special to each form). The shared features are:

• the pūrvaraṅga (the opening ceremony of invocation before the play)
• keeping to the proper deśa (place) and kāla (time)
• building up rasa, bhāva (feeling), vibhāva (causes of feeling), anubhāva (outward signs of feeling) and abhinaya (expression)
• proper handling of the aṅkas (acts)

The Pūrvaraṅga and the Prologue

The pūrvaraṅga has twenty-two parts (aṅgas), including the nāndī (the opening blessing). After the nāndī, the sūtradhāra (stage manager) appears and presents five things: the guru-paramparā (line of teachers), vaṃśa-praśaṃsā (praise of the family line), paurusha (prowess), and the sambandha (connection) and prayojana (purpose) of the work.

The sūtradhāra then opens a conversation with the naṭī (actress), the vidūshaka (jester) or the pāripārśvika (assistant). The talk seems personal, but it leads naturally into the subject of the play. This opening is called the āmukha or prastāvanā. It is of three types:

• Pravṛttaka: the sūtradhāra’s description of the season leads to a character’s entry
• Kathodghāta: a character enters picking up the sūtradhāra’s words
• Prayogātiśaya: a character enters while another performance is being described

Elements and Junctions of the Plot

The Nine Rasas (Chapter 339)

The Agni Purāṇa sets out the nine rasas (nava-rasa), the flavours of feeling that are the heart of all kāvya and nāṭya (drama). Each rasa arises when its vibhāvas (causes), anubhāvas (outward effects) and vyabhicāribhāvas (passing feelings) work together. Together they awaken the sthāyibhāva, the lasting feeling that lies hidden in the sensitive reader or viewer.

The vibhāvas of each rasa are its outer triggers. They are of two kinds: the ālambana-vibhāva, the person toward whom the feeling is felt, and the uddīpana-vibhāva, the surroundings that make it stronger. The anubhāvas are the bodily and spoken signs through which the rasa shows itself.

The vyabhicāribhāvas are thirty-three passing states of feeling. They colour and enrich the lasting feeling without replacing it. They include nirveda, glāni, śaṅkā, asūyā, mada, śrama, ālasya, dainya, cintā, moha, smṛti, dhṛti, vrīḍā, capalāvega, harsha, āvega, jaḍatā, garva, vishāda, autsukya, nidrā, apasmāra, supta, vibodha, amarsha, avahittha, ugratā, mati, vyādhi, unmāda, maraṇa, trāsa and vitarka.

Rīti-Nirūpaṇa: The Four Literary Styles (Chapter 340)

Rīti (style, or “flow”) means the typical way language is used: the texture of the wording, the use of compound words, and the overall sound. It marks a regional or artistic tradition of kāvya. The Agni Purāṇa describes four rītis:

Vaidarbhī: the style of the Vidarbha region (the Deccan). It is marked by mādhurya (sweetness) and has all ten guṇas. It uses pleasant sounds, avoids harsh compounds and flows with natural ease. It is held to be the finest of the rītis.

Gauḍī: the style of the Gauḍa region (Bengal and eastern India). It is marked by ojas (vigour and brilliance) and by figures of sound. It uses long, heavy compounds (samāsas), resounding clusters of consonants and a grand, forceful wording. It excels in the raudra (fury) and vīra (heroic) rasas.

Pāñcālī: the style of the Pāñcāla region (north-central India). It is a balanced rīti, neither as sweet-sounding as Vaidarbhī nor as heavy with compounds as Gauḍī. It mixes elements of both and is known for arthavyakti (clarity) and samatā (balance).

Lāṭī: the style of the Lāṭa region (Gujarat and western India). It is marked by its own manner of repetition and its use of familiar, everyday expressions.

Nṛtya-Ādi-Aṅgakarma: Classical Dance (Chapter 341)

The Agni Purāṇa treats classical dance (nṛtya) as a true part of kāvya-śāstra. It recognises that nāṭya, the performed art, includes both words and movement. The chapter deals with the parts of movement, rhythm and expression that govern classical performance.

Aṅgas and upāṅgas: The major limbs (aṅgas) are the head, hands, chest, sides, waist and feet. The minor limbs (upāṅgas) are the eyes, eyebrows, eyelids, pupils, cheeks and nose. These are the main tools of āṅgika abhinaya (expression through the body). Each limb has its own set of named movements, each with its own meanings and rasas.

Tāla: Tāla (rhythmic time) is the backbone of performance. The text gives the divisions of tāla and how they relate to the musical and emotional content of the performance.

Hasta-mudrās: Hand gestures (hasta-mudrās) are the most expressive part of abhinaya. The text describes both asaṃyuta-hastas (one-hand gestures) and saṃyuta-hastas (two-hand gestures). It gives the exact position of the fingers and the meaning or use (viniyoga) of each gesture.

Tāṇḍava and lāsya: The two basic modes of dance are tāṇḍava, the vigorous, masculine style linked with Śiva, and lāsya, the graceful, feminine style linked with Pārvatī. Three kinds of tāṇḍava are described, each linked with a different side of Śiva’s cosmic dance.

Abhinaya: The Four Ways of Expression (Chapter 342)

Abhinaya is the complete system of stage expression through which the actor passes on the rasa and bhāva of the story to the audience. The Agni Purāṇa describes four main modes:

Āṅgika-abhinaya: expression through the body, the movements of the major and minor limbs. It includes gait (cārī), posture (sthāna) and gesture (mudrā).

Vācika-abhinaya: expression through speech. It covers the voice’s pitch (svara), pace (laya) and quality (guṇa), and delivering the text well, with attention to rasa and meaning.

Āhārya-abhinaya: expression through costume, make-up and ornaments. Suitable dress, wigs, face paint and props show the audience at once the character’s nature, rank and feelings.

Sāttvika-abhinaya: expression through the natural bodily signs of deep feeling. These are the eight sāttvika-bhāvas:

• stambha (becoming stunned and motionless)
• sveda (sweating)
• romāñca (hair standing on end)
• svarakampa (trembling voice)
• vepathu (trembling body)
• vaivarṇya (change of colour)
• aśru (tears)
• pralaya (fainting)

These arise naturally in the skilled actor who has truly entered the feelings of the character. They cannot be produced mechanically, and they are the highest mark of great performance.

Śabdālaṃkāra: Figures of Sound (Chapter 343)

Śabdālaṃkāras are figures of speech whose beauty depends mainly on the sound of the words: patterns of sound that would be lost in translation or retelling.

Anuprāsa: alliteration, the repeating of the same consonant or group of consonants in words or syllables that follow one another. The Agni Purāṇa gives several kinds, based on the pattern:

• vṛtty-anuprāsa: repetition running through a whole passage
• śruti-anuprāsa: repetition of sounds from the same class
• antya-anuprāsa: repetition at the ends of the pādas (lines), like rhyme

Yamaka: the same string of syllables repeated in different places in a verse, with a different meaning each time. Yamaka ranges from simple end-rhyme to elaborate patterns where whole lines or half-verses are built from the same string of syllables with entirely different meanings. It is a supreme test of the poet’s mastery of the power of words (śabda-śakti).

Ślesha: a pun or double meaning, a single word or passage that carries two or more separate meanings at once, each fitting the context. Ślesha may be śabda-ślesha (based on the same sound) or artha-ślesha (based on overlapping meaning). Following the usual tradition of the ālaṃkārikas (teachers of poetics), the Agni Purāṇa applies ślesha both to single words and to whole passages.

Citra-kāvya: picture poetry, in which the syllables are arranged to form a shape such as a cakra (wheel), padma (lotus) or khaḍga (sword), adding a visual side to the work.

Arthālaṃkāra: Figures of Meaning (Chapter 344)

Arthālaṃkāras are figures whose beauty lies mainly in how meanings are arranged, not sounds. They survive translation.

Upamā: simile, openly comparing one thing to another with a word of comparison (iva, yathā, vat, meaning “like” or “as”). The Agni Purāṇa gives the four parts of a complete upamā:

• upameya: the thing being compared
• upamāna: what it is compared to
• sādhāraṇa-dharma: the quality they share
• samavācaka: the word of comparison

Rūpaka: metaphor, where the thing compared is simply called the thing it is compared to, with no word of comparison. In rūpaka the shared quality is so strong that a word of comparison would be needless.

Utprekshā: poetic fancy. The poet imagines the thing described as if it were the thing it is compared to, not as fact but as a creative possibility: “as if it were…”

Dṛshṭānta: illustration, where a general truth is shown through a particular example. Unlike upamā, the link is between two whole statements, not two objects.

Arthāntaranyāsa: supporting a general statement with a particular case, or a particular claim with a general truth.

Vibhāvanā: a figure in which an effect arises without its usual cause, or even when something should have prevented it. It is used to express the exceptional, the miraculous or what lies beyond the ordinary.

Virodhābhāsa: apparent contradiction, a statement that seems to contradict itself but is found to be in harmony at a deeper level.

Ananvaya: a figure in which the thing compared and the thing it is compared to are the same: “nothing compares to X except X itself.”

Samāsokti: compressed expression, where one statement covers two subjects at once by using words that apply to both.

Aprastuta-praśaṃsā: praise of what is not the subject, where something seemingly unrelated is praised, but the praise is understood to point indirectly to the main subject.

Śabdārtha-Alaṃkāra: Figures of Both Sound and Meaning (Chapter 345)

Śabdārtha-alaṃkāras join the beauty of sound with the beauty of meaning. Neither the sound alone nor the meaning alone explains the poetic effect; the two work together and cannot be separated. They show the highest joining of the poet’s craft. The Agni Purāṇa describes this group as the refinement in which the power of words (śabda-śakti) and the power of meaning (artha-śakti) can no longer be told apart. The poet has mastered both so fully that sound and meaning arise together as one shining utterance.

Kāvya-Guṇa: The Excellences of Poetry (Chapter 346)

The guṇas of kāvya are its lasting built-in excellences. They are qualities within the work itself that make it endure, resonate and awaken rasa in readers who are ready for it. The Agni Purāṇa lists ten guṇas:

1. Ślesha: coherence; all parts of the work hold together, and the words fit their context perfectly.
2. Prasāda: clarity; the meaning is grasped at once, and the language is clear as light.
3. Samatā: balance; the work is even in quality, without jarring ups and downs.
4. Mādhurya: sweetness; the sound is pleasant and the language flows with natural ease.
5. Sukumāratā: delicacy; a tender refinement that avoids harshness in both sound and feeling.
6. Arthavyakti: fullness of meaning; the meaning is fully expressed, without doubt or gaps.
7. Udāratā: nobility; lofty feeling and expression that suit the subject.
8. Ojas: vigour; energy, brilliance and force in the language.
9. Kānti: radiance; a shining beauty that draws and delights the reader.
10. Samādhi: focus; the power of fitting description, capturing the essence of a thing exactly in words.

Kāvya-Dosha: Faults in Poetry (Chapter 347)

Kāvya-doshas are faults that weaken, block or destroy the rasa of a work. The Agni Purāṇa divides them into two main groups.

Śabda-dosha (faults of wording):

• ungrammatical words (apraśasta-śabda)
• obscure or old-fashioned words used without good reason
• harsh or grating combinations of sounds
• faulty metre
• words with unintended double meanings (unwanted ślesha)
• repeating the same word with no artistic purpose

Artha-dosha (faults of meaning):

• inconsistency (viruddha-artha), where the meaning contradicts itself or the known facts of the story
• redundancy (punarukti), saying the same thing twice without variation
• incompleteness (nyūnatā), saying less than is needed for the meaning to be understood
• excess (adhikatā), saying more than is needed
• improbability (asaṃbhava), claiming what is impossible in the context
• vulgarity (grāmya), language fit only for crude talk, not for a refined setting
• unfitting comparison (durghaṭa-upamā), comparisons that shed no light

Mastery of kāvya is not only a matter of decorating verses with alaṃkāras. It needs the discipline of avoiding these faults while building up the excellences. A work free of faults, rich in excellences and adorned with fitting figures, and born from true poetic power (śakti) and learning (vyutpatti), becomes a channel through which rasa flows freely from the poet’s heart into the heart of the sahṛdaya, the sensitive reader. This brings about the highest delight, which is the purpose of all kāvya.

Sources

• Agni Purāṇa (Part 4), Chapters 337–347